{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T17:55:01Z","timestamp":1772301301488,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,22]],"date-time":"2024-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729555200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DL57\/2016\/CP1360\/CT006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DL57\/2016\/CP1360\/CT006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>MicroRNAs are a conserved class of small, tissue-specific, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression to preserve cellular homeostasis. Proper miRNA expression is crucial for physiological balance because it affects numerous genetic pathways, including cell cycle control, proliferation, and apoptosis, through gene expression targeting. Deregulated miRNA expression has been implicated in several cancer types, including prostate cancer (PC), acting as tumor suppressors or oncogenes. Despite the availability of promising therapies to control tumor growth and progression, effective diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for different types of cancer are still lacking. PC continues to be a significant health challenge, particularly its castration-resistant (CRPC) form, which presents major therapeutic obstacles because of its resistance to conventional androgen deprivation treatments. This review explores miRNAs\u2019 critical roles in gene regulation and cancer biology, as well as various miRNA delivery systems, highlighting their potential and the challenges in effectively targeting cancer cells. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the status of miRNA research in the fight against CRPC, summarizing miRNA-based therapies\u2019 successes and limitations. It also highlights the promise of miRNAs as therapeutic agents for CRPC, underlining the need for further research to overcome existing challenges and move these therapies toward clinical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16111347","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,22]],"date-time":"2024-10-22T04:10:14Z","timestamp":1729570214000},"page":"1347","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["MicroRNAs as Promising Therapeutic Agents Against Prostate Cancer Resistant to Castration\u2014Where Are We Now?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Mariana","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (Porto.CCC), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS, Abel Salazar Institute for the Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8406-8210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana","family":"Morais","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (Porto.CCC), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS, Abel Salazar Institute for the Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3010-8373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Medeiros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (Porto.CCC), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS, Abel Salazar Institute for the Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Biomedical Research Center (CEBIMED), Faculty of Health Sciences, Fernando Pessoa University (UFP), 4249-004 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Department, LPCC-Portuguese League Against Cancer (NRNorte), 4200-172 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine (FMUP), University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7489-2211","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Lu\u00edsa","family":"Teixeira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (Porto.CCC), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/96.2.435","article-title":"Isolation and genetic characterization of cell-lineage mutants of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans","volume":"96","author":"Horvitz","year":"1980","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)90529-Y","article-title":"The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14","volume":"75","author":"Lee","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1038\/35002607","article-title":"The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans","volume":"403","author":"Reinhart","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D140","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkj112","article-title":"miRBase: microRNA sequences, targets and gene nomenclature","volume":"34","author":"Grocock","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21244","article-title":"MicroRNAome genome: A treasure for cancer diagnosis and therapy","volume":"64","author":"Pasculli","year":"2014","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. 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