{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T10:08:17Z","timestamp":1766138897726,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,27]],"date-time":"2024-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727395200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Philanthropy for the Penn State University\u2014Research on Emergency Food Resilience project"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The floating freshwater fern Azolla is the only plant that retains an endocyanobiont, Nostoc azollae (aka Anabaena azollae), during its sexual and asexual reproduction. The increased interest in Azolla as a potential source of food and its unique evolutionary history have raised questions about its cyanotoxin content and genome. Cyanotoxins are potent toxins synthesized by cyanobacteria which have an anti-herbivore effect but have also been linked to neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s diseases, liver and kidney failure, muscle paralysis, and other severe health issues. In this study, we investigated 48 accessions of Azolla\u2013Nostoc symbiosis for the presence of genes coding microcystin, nodularin, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin, and BLAST analysis for anatoxin-a. We also investigated the presence of the neurotoxin \u03b2-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) in Azolla and N. azollae through LC-MS\/MS. The PCR amplification of saxitoxin, cylindrospermospin, microcystin, and nodularin genes showed that Azolla and its cyanobiont N. azollae do not have the genes to synthesize these cyanotoxins. Additionally, the matching of the anatoxin-a gene to the sequenced N. azollae genome does not indicate the presence of the anatoxin-a gene. The LC-MS\/MS analysis showed that BMAA and its isomers AEG and DAB are absent from Azolla and Nostoc azollae. Azolla therefore has the potential to safely feed millions of people due to its rapid growth while free-floating on shallow fresh water without the need for nitrogen fertilizers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants13192707","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,27]],"date-time":"2024-09-27T09:16:10Z","timestamp":1727428570000},"page":"2707","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Azolla as a Safe Food: Suppression of Cyanotoxin-Related Genes and Cyanotoxin Production in Its Symbiont, Nostoc azollae"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Jonathan P.","family":"Bujak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Azolla Foundation, Burbage Lodge, 200 Queens Promenade, Blackpool FY2 9JS, UK"}]},{"given":"Ana L.","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Interdisciplinar de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR, University of Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s\/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3757-8143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Interdisciplinar de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR, University of Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s\/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Alexandra A.","family":"Bujak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Azolla Foundation, Burbage Lodge, 200 Queens Promenade, Blackpool FY2 9JS, UK"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Leshyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Azolla Biodesign, 65 Vista Lane, Sedona, AZ 86351, USA"}]},{"given":"Minh","family":"Pham Gia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, E4 Building, app.12A07, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam"}]},{"given":"Timo","family":"Stadtlander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Ackerstrasse 113, CH-5070 Frick, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3585-2417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vitor","family":"Vasconcelos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Interdisciplinar de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR, University of Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s\/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Biology, FCUP-Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7039-6827","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel J.","family":"Winstead","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, College of Agricultural Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seckbach, J., and Grube, M. 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