{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,11]],"date-time":"2026-04-11T04:28:09Z","timestamp":1775881689235,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]],"date-time":"2023-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700870400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Plastic pollution has become a pressing environmental issue. The agricultural sector, in particular, is a significant contributor to this problem, given the widespread use of plastics in farming practices and a lack of and\/or use of inefficient approaches for the recycling and valorization of agricultural plastic waste. This has resulted in the accumulation of these residues in landfills and\/or their improper disposal, which has exacerbated their environmental impact, leading to negative consequences on soil, water, and ecosystems. This work provides an overview on the current methodologies available to address the challenges associated with inadequate management of agricultural plastics and highlights the need for a comprehensive and systematic methodology, involving material development, polymer processing, waste collection, sorting, and valorization. It emphasizes the importance of collaboration between polymer producers, polymer manufacturers, farmers, policymakers, waste management companies, and recyclers to develop effective, technical, and economically viable recycling and valorization schemes. This paper addresses gaps and provides guidance on possible solutions, specifically polymer development, policy instruments, regulatory frameworks, collection schemes, and the technical approaches required for the adequate valorization of agricultural plastic waste. Furthermore, it highlights the associated barriers and benefits of the different presented approaches. It also aims to promote awareness on agricultural plastic waste and provide guidance on the best approaches to reduce its environmental impact.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15234529","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]],"date-time":"2023-11-27T03:35:06Z","timestamp":1701056106000},"page":"4529","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Towards a Sustainable Future: Advancing an Integrated Approach for the Recycling and Valorization of Agricultural Plastics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Susana","family":"Filipe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Institute for Advanced Studies and Research, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3634-2390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo Mira","family":"Mour\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Institute for Advanced Studies and Research, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica e Bioqu\u00edmica, Universidade de \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2911-6432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nazar\u00e9","family":"Couto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CENSE\u2014Center for Environmental and Sustainability Research & CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1529-1395","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Tranchida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Competence Center Advanced Polymer Characterisation, Borealis GmbH, Sankt Peter Strasse 25, 4021 Linz, Austria"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Pereira, R., Hernandez, A., James, B., and Lemoine, B. (2023, July 28). EIP-AGRI Focus Group: Reducing the Plastic Footprint of Agriculture. Minipaper B: The Agri-Plastic End-of-Life Management. EIP-AGRI Focus Group\/EU. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eip\/agriculture\/sites\/default\/files\/eip-agri_fg_plastic_footprint_minipaper_b_final.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"FAO (2021). Assessment of Agricultural Plastics and Their Sustainability: A Call for Action, FAO."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). Statistics\u2014APE Europe. Available online: https:\/\/apeeurope.eu\/statistics\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). Plastics in Agriculture\u2014An Environmental Challenge. UNEP\u2014UN Environment Programme. Available online: https:\/\/www.unep.org\/resources\/emerging-issues\/plastics-agriculture-environmental-challenge."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). Wageningen Report on Use of Plastics in Agriculture. Available online: www.schuttelaar.nl."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2022\u20132031. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook. Available online: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/agriculture-and-food\/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2022-2031_f1b0b29c-en."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157857","article-title":"Microplastic pollution in soils, plants, and animals: A review of distributions, effects and potential mechanisms","volume":"850","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2023.104193","article-title":"Current approaches, and challenges on identification, remediation and potential risks of emerging plastic contaminants: A review","volume":"101","author":"Quang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.142211","article-title":"Biodegradable, anti-freezing and self-healable hydrogel mulch film for weed control","volume":"462","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandopadhyay, S., Gonz\u00e1lez, J.E.L.Y., Henderson, K.B., Anunciado, M.B., Hayes, D.G., and DeBruyn, J.M. (2020). Soil Microbial Communities Associated With Biodegradable Plastic Mulch Films. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.587074"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., Xue, Y., Jin, T., Zhang, K., Li, Z., Sun, C., Mi, Q., and Li, Q. (2022). Effect of Long-Term Biodegradable Film Mulch on Soil Physicochemical and Microbial Properties. Toxics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10030129"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandopadhyay, S., Martin-Closas, L., Pelacho, A.M., and DeBruyn, J.M. (2018). Biodegradable Plastic Mulch Films: Impacts on Soil Microbial Communities and Ecosystem Functions. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00819"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b06042","article-title":"Is Biodegradable Plastic Mulch the Solution to Agriculture\u2019s Plastic Problem?","volume":"51","author":"Sintim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3534","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-022-02435-z","article-title":"Interactions Between High Load of a Bio-based and Biodegradable Plastic and Nitrogen Fertilizer Affect Plant Biomass and Health: A Case Study with Fusarium solani and Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.)","volume":"30","author":"Scheid","year":"1234","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y., Yang, W., Shi, H., Tanveer, S.K., and Hai, J. (2022). Past, present, and future perspectives of biodegradable films for soil: A 30-year systematic review. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.1006388"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hazadv.2021.100024","article-title":"Are micro-and nanoplastics from soil-biodegradable plastic mulches an environmental concern?","volume":"4","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107244","article-title":"A review on the occurrence and influence of biodegradable microplastics in soil ecosystems: Are biodegradable plastics substitute or threat?","volume":"163","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Agriculture Film (2023, September 20). LyondellBasell. Available online: https:\/\/www.lyondellbasell.com\/en\/products-technology\/polymers\/application\/agriculture-film1\/."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2023, September 20). Borstar\u00ae FB3450\u2014Borealis. Available online: https:\/\/www.borealisgroup.com\/products\/product-catalogue\/borstar-fb3450."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Alwaysfree-Borouge-Launches-Seven-Sustainable-Polyethylene-Pe-Polypropylene-Pp-Grades. Available online: https:\/\/ssessments.com\/alwaysfree-borouge-launches-seven-sustainable-polyethylene-pe-polypropylene-pp-grades."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). LDPE Recyclates\u2014Ecoplast Kunststoff-Recycling GmbH in Wildon, Steiermark, Austria. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecoplast.com\/en\/recyclates\/ldpe-recyclates\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaiser, K., Schmid, M., and Schlummer, M. (2018). Recycling of Polymer-Based Multilayer Packaging: A Review. Recycling, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling3010001"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2021.108347","article-title":"Closed-loop supply chain potential of agricultural plastic waste: Economic and environmental assessment of bale wrap waste recycling in Finland","volume":"244","author":"Mayanti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4009","DOI":"10.1021\/jf960326k","article-title":"Absorption of Pesticides on Plastic Films Used as Agricultural Soil Covers","volume":"44","author":"Cacho","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3304","DOI":"10.1021\/ac9702195","article-title":"Quantitative Analysis of Pesticides in Postconsumer Recycled Plastics Using Off-Line Supercritical Fluid Extraction\/GC-ECD","volume":"69","author":"Batlle","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2013.03.004","article-title":"Technical specifications for mechanical recycling of agricultural plastic waste","volume":"33","author":"Briassoulis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.130897","article-title":"Thickness-dependent release of microplastics and phthalic acid esters from polythene and biodegradable residual films in agricultural soils and its related productivity effects","volume":"448","author":"Uzamurera","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45545","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-13866-x","article-title":"Determinants of smallholder farmers\u2019 choice on mulch film thickness in rural China","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1002\/masy.19920570110","article-title":"Technology available for recycling agricultural mulch film","volume":"57","author":"Llop","year":"1992","journal-title":"Makromol. Chemie. Macromol. Symp."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.159999","article-title":"In situ degradation of low-density polyethylene film in irrigation maize field: Thickness-dependent effect","volume":"858","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89238","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-28642-2","article-title":"Mechanical and friction properties of agricultural plastic film during autumn harvest period of cotton in Xinjiang, China","volume":"30","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"285","article-title":"Closed-loop recycling. A case study of films for greenhouses","volume":"95","year":"2009","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2012.06.024","article-title":"Experimental tests and technical characteristics of regenerated films from agricultural plastics","volume":"97","author":"Picuno","year":"2012","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1986.03615995005000010039x","article-title":"Field Aging of Transparent Polyethylene Mulches: II. Influence on the Effectiveness of Soil Heating","volume":"50","author":"Avissar","year":"1986","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016040403779","article-title":"LDPE\/EPDM Multilayer Films Containing Recycled LDPE For Greenhouse Applications","volume":"9","author":"Amin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scaffaro, R., Gulino, E.F., Citarrella, M.C., and Maio, A. (2022). Green Composites Based on Hedysarum coronarium with Outstanding FDM Printability and Mechanical Performance. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14061198"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scaffaro, R., Citarrella, M.C., and Morreale, M. (2023). Green Composites Based on Mater-Bi\u00ae and Solanum lycopersicum Plant Waste for 3D Printing Applications. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15020325"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2023, July 21). European Parliament P8_TA(2018)0352 A European Strategy for Plastics in a circular economy. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/doceo\/document\/TA-8-2018-0352_EN.html."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2023, July 21). European Union DIRECTIVE (EU) 2019\/904. Official Journal of the European Union. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2019\/904\/oj."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). EUR-Lex\u201432008L0098\u2014EN\u2014EUR-Lex. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=celex%3A32008L0098."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Directive 2000\/60\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy. FAOLEX. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/faolex\/results\/details\/en\/c\/LEX-FAOC023005\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Directive 2008\/56\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Marine Environmental Policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive). FAOLEX. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/faolex\/results\/details\/en\/c\/LEX-FAOC080075\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Council Regulation (EC) No. 1224\/2009 Establishing a Community Control System for Ensuring Compliance with the Rules of the Common Fisheries Policy, Amending Regulations (EC) No. 847\/96, (EC) No. 2371\/2002, (EC) No. 811\/2004, (EC) No. 768\/2005, (EC) No. 2115\/2005, (EC) No. 2166\/2005, (EC) No. 388\/2006, (EC) No. 509\/2007, (EC) No. 676\/2007, (EC) No. 1098\/2007, (EC) No. 1300\/2008, (EC) No. 1342\/2008 and Repealing Regulations (EEC) No. 2847\/93, (EC) No. 1627\/94 and (EC) No. 1966\/2006. FAOLEX. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/faolex\/results\/details\/en\/c\/LEX-FAOC091900\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). EUR-Lex\u201431994L0062\u2014EN\u2014EUR-Lex. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=celex%3A31994L0062."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Codex Alimentarius Commission Procedural Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/documents\/card\/en\/c\/cc5042en."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2023, July 21). inpEV Brazil Law No. 9.974\/00, Available online: https:\/\/www.planalto.gov.br\/ccivil_03\/leis\/l9974.htm."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2017). Polyethylene Blown Mulch Film for Agricultural Uses (Standard No. GB 13735-2017)."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2023, July 27). Regulation (EC) No 765\/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council (4) lays down rules on the accredi N\u00ba9.974\/00. Available online: ttps:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:218:0030:0047:en:PDF."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Country Landfill Tax in \u20ac\/Tonne Landfill Tax Planned Landfill Restrictions Implemented Landfill Restrictions Planned Eu 27. Available online: www.cewep.eu."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Knowledge Hub \u2022 Plastics Europe. Available online: https:\/\/plasticseurope.org\/resources\/publications\/."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Knowledge Hub \u2022 Plastics Europe\u2014\u2018Plastics-the Facts 2022 October 2022\u2019. Available online: https:\/\/plasticseurope.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/PE-PLASTICS-THE-FACTS_FINAL_DIGITAL-5.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Knowledge Hub \u2022 Plastics Europe\u2014\u2018The Circular Economy for Plastics\u2019. Available online: https:\/\/plasticseurope.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/PlasticsEurope-CircularityReport-2022_2804-Light.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Knowledge Hub \u2022 Plastics Europe\u2014\u2018Plasticsthefastfacts2023-1\u2019. Available online: https:\/\/plasticseurope.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/10\/Plasticsthefastfacts2023-1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Crop Plastics Recycling Germany (ERDE) Recycling. Available online: https:\/\/www.rigk.de\/en\/recovery-systems\/recovery-systems-for-producer-and-packaging-companies\/detail\/crop-plastics-recycling-germany-erde-recycling."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Breathing New Life into Old Agricultural Film. Raniplast. Available online: https:\/\/www.raniplast.com\/breathing-new-life-into-old-agricultural-film\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"The Green Sack\u00ae Heavy Duty Refuse Bag & Sacks Manufacturer (2023, August 02). Berry Global. Available online: https:\/\/www.berryglobal.com\/en\/brands\/the-green-sack."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Quienes Somos\u2014Mapla. Available online: https:\/\/plasticosagricolas.es\/sobre-mapla\/."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2023, October 25). Espacenet\u2014Search Results. Available online: https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/patent\/search\/family\/080222285\/publication\/WO2023139157A1?q=WO2023139157A1."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). EP 4063452 A1\u2014Mixed-Plastics-Polypropylene Blend. The Lens. Available online: https:\/\/www.lens.org\/lens\/patent\/092-483-624-776-488\/frontpage."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). WO 2022\/253804 A1\u2014Polyethylene Blend. The Lens. Available online: https:\/\/www.lens.org\/lens\/patent\/144-422-441-579-647\/frontpage."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Pneus Recolha de Res\u00edduos Procedimentos Correctos. Available online: www.apambiente.pt\/silogr\/pages\/PesquisarLER.aspx."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1","article-title":"The road to sustainable use and waste management of plastics in Portugal","volume":"16","author":"Prata","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2016.09.013","article-title":"Recycling of plastic solid waste: A state of art review and future applications","volume":"115","author":"Singh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Agriculture Film Recycling\u2014Machines and Plants for Waste Recycling\u2014Machines and Plants for Waste Recycling. Available online: https:\/\/www.promeco.it\/plants-for-waste-recycling\/plants-for-plastic-recycling\/agriculture-film-recycling.html."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Agriculture Film and Crop Plastics Waste Shredder and Recycling. Available online: https:\/\/weima.com\/en\/shredding-and-recycling-agriculture-film\/?gclid=CjwKCAjw3POhBhBQEiwAqTCuBr4XDuMhSN1qCtrUuE5dJxjM8E9Nj_FxGHrPUq-Lomjxcp7_8zdJhRoCccgQAvD_BwE."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). Plants Engineering Your Recycling Line. Available online: https:\/\/sorema.it\/en\/plants."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2023, August 02). INTAREMA TVEplus. Available online: https:\/\/www.erema.com\/en\/intarema_tveplus\/."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korol, J., Hejna, A., Wypi\u00f3r, K., Mijalski, K., and Chmielnicka, E. (2021). Wastes from Agricultural Silage Film Recycling Line as a Potential Polymer Materials. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13091383"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Simon, J.M., and Martin, S. (2019). Management, Zero Waste Europe."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). New Age Innovations: Shoes Made from Recycled Plastic Bags\u2014Recykal. Available online: https:\/\/recykal.com\/2021\/09\/01\/shoes-from-recycled-plastic\/."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solomon, A.A., Shelton, J.J., and Daniel, C. (2023). Turning low-density polyethylene plastic waste into plastics bricks for sustainable development. Mater. Today Proc.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2023.03.482"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S265","DOI":"10.1080\/14680629.2019.1588776","article-title":"Use of plastic wastes from greenhouse in asphalt mixes manufactured by dry process","volume":"20","author":"Cuadri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Road Mater. Pavement Des."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Beyond Wood\u2014First Recycled Plastic Railway Sleepers Laid on Network Rail Tracks. Available online: https:\/\/www.networkrailmediacentre.co.uk\/news\/beyond-wood-first-recycled-plastic-railway-sleepers-laid-on-network-rail-tracks."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.135032","article-title":"Recycled agricultural plastic waste as green roof drainage layer within the perspective of ecological transition for the built environment","volume":"380","author":"Cascone","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Farm Waste Plastic Collection. Birch Plastics. Available online: http:\/\/www.birchfarmplastics.co.uk\/index.php#."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Cree Plant Converts Waste Plastic into Fence Posts\u2014The Clare Champion. Available online: https:\/\/clarechampion.ie\/cree-plant-converts-waste-plastic-into-fence-posts\/."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Recycled Plastic Products, Made in Australia by Plastic Forests. Available online: https:\/\/plasticforests.com.au\/."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.126869","article-title":"A new renewable energy based integrated gasification system for hydrogen production from plastic wastes","volume":"270","author":"Ismail","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sotoudehnia, F., and McDonald, A.G. (2022). Upgrading Mixed Agricultural Plastic and Lignocellulosic Waste to Liquid Fuels by Catalytic Pyrolysis. Catalysts, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal12111381"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1111\/wej.12762","article-title":"Use of dirty plastic waste as precursors for activated carbon production\u2014A contribution to the circular economy","volume":"36","author":"Cansado","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Environ. J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Assis, A.C., Panizio, R., Calado, L., Brito, P., and Mour\u00e3o, P. (2023). Use of By-Products from Gasification and Carbonization from Polymeric Residues and Biomass for Application in Liquid Phase Adsorption. Environments, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments10050074"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2023.116983","article-title":"Progress on co-processing of biomass and plastic waste for hydrogen production","volume":"284","author":"Mishra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scp.2023.100991","article-title":"Hydrothermal treatment of plastic waste within a circular economy perspective","volume":"32","author":"Mumtaz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2021.105029","article-title":"Investigation of biomass and agricultural plastic co-pyrolysis: Effect on biochar yield and properties","volume":"155","author":"Rathnayake","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobab.2022.09.004","article-title":"Production of solid fuels by hydrothermal treatment of wastes of biomass, plastic, and biomass\/plastic mixtures: A review","volume":"7","author":"Zheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bioresour. Bioprod."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2023.106916","article-title":"How much can chemical recycling contribute to plastic waste recycling in Europe? An assessment using material flow analysis modeling","volume":"192","author":"Lase","year":"2023","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.02.004","article-title":"Co-pyrolysis of biomass and waste plastics as a thermochemical conversion technology for high-grade biofuel production: Recent progress and future directions elsewhere worldwide","volume":"163","author":"Uzoejinwa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2023, September 21). Plastic Energy. Global Leader in Plastics Recycling. Available online: https:\/\/plasticenergy.com\/."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-020-0032-3","article-title":"Combating plastic waste via Trash to Tank","volume":"1","author":"Joshi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2021.100311","article-title":"Microplastics in agricultural soils: Sources, effects, and their fate","volume":"25","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152419","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1152419","article-title":"Microplastics in agriculture\u2014A potential novel mechanism for the delivery of human pathogens onto crops","volume":"14","author":"Quilliam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134722","article-title":"Behavior of microplastics and plastic film residues in the soil environment: A critical review","volume":"703","author":"Qi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2019.121814","article-title":"Microplastics in agricultural soils on the coastal plain of Hangzhou Bay, east China: Multiple sources other than plastic mulching film","volume":"388","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149823","article-title":"Challenges and opportunities in bioremediation of micro-nano plastics: A review","volume":"802","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e13296","article-title":"Micro and nanoplastics ravaging our agroecosystem: A review of occurrence, fate, ecological impacts, detection, remediation, and prospects","volume":"9","author":"Okeke","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.114342","article-title":"A concept for the biotechnological minimizing of emerging plastics, micro- and nano-plastics pollutants from the environment: A review","volume":"216","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2007.12.005","article-title":"Biological degradation of plastics: A comprehensive review","volume":"26","author":"Shah","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115044","article-title":"Microbial remediation of micro-nano plastics: Current knowledge and future trends","volume":"265","author":"Tiwari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners. Available online: https:\/\/www.mofga.org\/farmer-resources\/greenhouse-plastic-recycling-program\/%5d."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). Grain Bag Recycling Program. Saskatchewan Waste Management. Government of Saskatchewan. Available online: https:\/\/www.saskatchewan.ca\/residents\/environment-public-health-and-safety\/saskatchewan-waste-management\/grain-bag-recycling-program."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"(2023, July 28). Roadmap 2025 Pacto Portugu\u00eas Para os Pl\u00e1sticos. Available online: www.smartwasteportugal.com."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2022.12.024","article-title":"Pyrolytic biochar from plastic film waste addition on farmland for maize growth improvement: Process and effect study","volume":"157","author":"Zixi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.160955","article-title":"Farmers\u2019 attitudes towards agricultural plastics-Management and disposal, awareness and perceptions of the environmental impacts","volume":"864","author":"King","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2016.02.011","article-title":"Attitudes to the recovery and recycling of agricultural plastics waste: A case study of Nova Scotia, Canada","volume":"109","author":"Muise","year":"2016","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119844","article-title":"For a new plastics economy in agriculture: Policy reflections on the EU strategy from a local perspective","volume":"253","author":"Pazienza","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/15\/23\/4529\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:30:03Z","timestamp":1760131803000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/15\/23\/4529"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["polym15234529"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym15234529","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]]}}}