{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T17:43:44Z","timestamp":1775756624188,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,14]],"date-time":"2024-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710374400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Strategic Research Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB00102\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB00102\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Strategic Research Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1061\/31\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1061\/31\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Business Finland","award":["UIDB00102\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB00102\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Business Finland","award":["1061\/31\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1061\/31\/2020"]}]},{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd.","award":["UIDB00102\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB00102\/2020"]}]},{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd.","award":["1061\/31\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1061\/31\/2020"]}]},{"name":"12 industrial partners","award":["UIDB00102\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB00102\/2020"]}]},{"name":"12 industrial partners","award":["1061\/31\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1061\/31\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Powders"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Particle aggregation is essential in many industrial processes, spanning the pharmaceutical and food industries, polymer production, and the environment, among others. However, aggregation can also occur, in some processes, as a non-desired side effect. Thus, to be able to monitor aggregation in industrial processes is of high importance to guarantee that the final, required product characteristics are obtained. In this paper, we present an extensive review of the different techniques available for monitoring particle characteristics in industrial processes involving particulate materials, with special emphasis on aggregation processes. These methods include both off-line and on-line techniques, based either on image acquisition techniques or different radiation scattering techniques (light-scattering and ultrasound spectroscopy). The principles behind each technique are addressed, together with their relevant applications, advantages, and disadvantages.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/powders3010007","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,18]],"date-time":"2024-03-18T08:17:29Z","timestamp":1710749849000},"page":"77-110","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Monitoring Aggregation Processes in Multiphase Systems: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6084-4553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Gra\u00e7a","family":"Rasteiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CERES, Chemical Engineering and Renewable Resources for Sustainability Research Center, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, P\u00f3lo II, R. Silvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9361-6693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antti","family":"Koponen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Koivurannantie 1, 40400 Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4, Finland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19926","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.9b03951","article-title":"Aggregate Morphology and Aqueous Dispersibility of Spray-Dried Powders of Cellulose Nanocrystals","volume":"58","author":"Esparza","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2015.01.162","article-title":"Particle Aggregation in Large Counter-current Spray Drying Towers: Nozzle Configuration, Vortex Momentum and Temperature","volume":"102","author":"Francia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2013.12.013","article-title":"Clarifying the mechanism of aggregation of particles in high-shear granulation based on their surface properties by using micro-spectroscopy","volume":"461","author":"Kano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Myers, D. (2002). Surfaces, Interfaces, and Colloids: Principles and Applications, Wiley. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0471234990"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parikh, D.M. (2005). Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9780849354953"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zbicinski, I., Ciesielski, K., and Bangguo Ge, B. (2022). Mechanism of Particle Agglomeration for Single and Multi-Nozzle Atomization in Spray Drying: A Review. Processes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr10040727"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, N., Xiao, J., Woo, M.W., and Chen, X.D. (2020). Frontiers in Spray Drying, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429429859"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2008.04.004","article-title":"Flocculation of PCC for Papermaking: Influence of the Particle Characteristics","volume":"86","author":"Antunes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Res. Design"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1002\/cjce.5450850213","article-title":"Flocculation, Retention and Drainage in Papermaking: A Comparative Study of Polymeric Additives","volume":"85","author":"Cadotte","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horrocks, A.R., and Anand, S.C. (2000). Handbook of Technical Textiles, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781439822906"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ives, J.K. (1978). The Scientific Basis of Flocculation, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-9938-1"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.00005","article-title":"Evaluation of Anionic and Cationic Pulp-Based Flocculants with Diverse Lignin Contents for Application in Effluent Treatment from the Textile Industry: Flocculation Monitoring","volume":"8","author":"Grenda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4363","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.5b04703","article-title":"Recent Advancement of Coagulation\u2013Flocculation and Its Application in Wastewater Treatment","volume":"55","author":"Teh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2007.03.012","article-title":"Organic polyelectrolytes in water treatment","volume":"41","author":"Bolto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23554","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcc.8b07212","article-title":"Particle Aggregation Modifies Crystallization: Extending the Hierarchical Order of a Polycrystalline Material to the Macroscale","volume":"122","author":"Knoll","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mullin, J.W. (2001). Crystallization, Butterworth Heinemann. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-075064833-2\/50009-7"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.3183\/npprj-2006-21-01-p036-043","article-title":"Some ways to decrease fibre suspension flocculation and improve sheet formation","volume":"21","author":"Huawei","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1515\/npprj-2018-3051","article-title":"The effect of in-line foam generation on foam quality and sheet formation in foam forming","volume":"33","author":"Koponen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nord. Pulp Paper Res. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2015.09.069","article-title":"Effect of precipitated calcium carbonate\u2014Cellulose nanofibrils composite filler on paper properties","volume":"136","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115672","article-title":"The influence of versatile thiol-norbornene modifications to cellulose nanofibers on rheology and film properties","volume":"230","author":"Fein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.3390\/polym3020915","article-title":"Using light scattering to screen polyelectrolytes (PEL) performance in flocculation","volume":"3","author":"Rasteiro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S1383-5866(00)00072-1","article-title":"Aggregate structures formed via a bridging flocculation mechanism","volume":"80","author":"Biggs","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cep.2007.04.009","article-title":"The use of LDS as a tool to evaluate flocculation mechanisms","volume":"47","author":"Rasteiro","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Proc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2008.09.003","article-title":"Monitoring Particle Aggregation Processes","volume":"147\u2013148","author":"Gregory","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1021\/es981125v","article-title":"Collision Frequencies of Fractal Bacterial Aggregates with Small Particles in a Sheared Fluid","volume":"33","author":"Serra","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2010.03.020","article-title":"Modelling PCC flocculation by bridging mechanism using population balances: Effect of polymer characteristics on flocculation","volume":"65","author":"Antunes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1021\/op500261y","article-title":"Assessment of recent process analytical technology (PAT) trends: A multiauthor review","volume":"19","author":"Levente","year":"2015","journal-title":"Org. Proc. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjche.2018.11.011","article-title":"Optical inline analysis and monitoring of particle size and shape distributions for multiple applications: Scientific and industrial relevance","volume":"27","author":"Emmerich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apt.2017.08.009","article-title":"Inline method of droplet and particle size distribution analysis in di-lute disperse systems","volume":"28","author":"Fischer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2022.118333","article-title":"Characterisation of particle stress in turbulent impeller flows utilising photo-optical measurements of a flocculation system\u2014PART 1","volume":"267","author":"Panckow","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drexler, W., and Fujimoto, J.G. (2008). Optical Coherence Tomography Technology and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-77550-8"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s12551-011-0054-7","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography: Fundamental principles, instrumental designs and biomedical applications","volume":"3","author":"Popescu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biophys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.14356\/kona.2020003","article-title":"Analysis of industry-related flows by optical coherence tomography\u2014A review","volume":"37","author":"Koponen","year":"2020","journal-title":"KONA Powder Part. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1021\/ie503342d","article-title":"Evaluation of the flocculation and re-flocculation performance of a system with calcium carbonate, cationic acrylamide copolymers and bentonite microparticles","volume":"54","author":"Antunes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4117(200205)19:2<84::AID-PPSC84>3.0.CO;2-1","article-title":"Estimating Average Particle Size by Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM)","volume":"19","author":"Heath","year":"2002","journal-title":"Part. Part. Syst. Charact."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6058","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.2c00385","article-title":"Using Focused Beam Laser Reflectance Measurements to Determine Asphaltene Aggregation Stability","volume":"36","author":"Dufour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/cjce.5450800403","article-title":"Flocculation monitoring: Focused beam reflectance measurement as a measurement tool","volume":"80","author":"Blanco","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2008.04.067","article-title":"Monitoring of the aggregation process of dense colloidal silica suspensions in a stirred tank by acoustic spectroscopy","volume":"190","author":"Tourbin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Kazzaz, A.E., AlipoorMazandarani, N., Feizi, Z.H., and Fatehi, P. (2018). Production of Flocculants, Adsorbents, and Dispersants from Lignin. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23040868"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-7757(02)00569-1","article-title":"Aggregation due to capillary forces during drying of particle submonolayers","volume":"217","author":"Thill","year":"2003","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2007.12.005","article-title":"Effect of shear rate on aggregate size and morphology investigated under turbulent conditions in stirred tank","volume":"319","author":"Soos","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0032-5910(94)02944-J","article-title":"Image processing for on-line monitoring of granule size distribution and shape in fluidized bed granulation","volume":"83","author":"Watano","year":"1995","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"26","article-title":"Selecting in-process particle-size analyzers","volume":"99","author":"Barret","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Prog."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Gerristen, J.W., Li, R., Penchev, R., Wang, X.Z., Roberts, K.J., and Tweedie, R. (November, January 29). Online shape analysis of particles using an in-situ vision system. Proceedings of the Control of Particulate Processes VII Intelligent Sensing and Control\u2014The Path to Manufacturing Excellence, Harrison Hot Springs, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2450","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.16145","article-title":"Application of inline imaging for monitoring crystallization process in a continuous oscillatory baffled crystallizer","volume":"64","author":"Kacker","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIChE J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-010-0918-9","article-title":"Experimental comparison of measurement techniques for drop size distributions in liquid\/liquid dispersions","volume":"50","author":"Wollny","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2023, November 15). Sopat. Available online: https:\/\/www.parsum.de\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compchemeng.2012.05.014","article-title":"Automated drop detection using image analysis for online particle size monitoring in multiphase systems","volume":"45","author":"Rojahn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1002\/ceat.201500123","article-title":"Determination of particle size distributions in multiphase systems containing nonspherical fluid particles","volume":"38","author":"Panckow","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.03.089","article-title":"On droplets size distribution in a pulsed column. Part I: In-situ measurements and corresponding CFD-PBE simulations","volume":"296","author":"Amokrane","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stuber, A., Auer, G., Fischlechner, M., Wockstrom, C., Reiter, L., Lutsch, E., Simon-Nobbe, B., Marozin, S., and Lepperdinger, G. (2022). Low-cost devices for three-dimensional cell aggregation, real-time monitoring microscopy, microfluidic immunostaining, and deconvolution analysis. Bioengineering, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering9020060"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5887","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-013-1824-5","article-title":"Quantitative image analysis for the characterization of microbial aggregates in biological wastewater treatment: A review","volume":"20","author":"Costa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Env. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6941.2010.00837.x","article-title":"Advanced imaging techniques for assessment of structure, composition and function in biofilm systems","volume":"72","author":"Neu","year":"2010","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drexler, W., Liu, M., Kumar, A., Kamali, T., Unterhuber, A., and Leitgeb, R.A. (2014). Optical coherence tomography today: Speed, contrast, and multimodality. J. Biomed. Opt., 19.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.19.7.071412"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bille, J. (2019). High-Resolution Imaging in Microscopy and Ophthalmology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-16638-0"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harding, K.G., Huang, P.S., and Yoshizawa, T. (2012, January 5\u20137). OCT for industrial applications. Proceedings of the Optical Metrology and Inspection for Industrial Applications II, Beijing, China. article 85630N.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2000462"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawasaki, M. (2013). Optical Coherence Tomography, InTechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/56293"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Yoshizawa, T. (2015). Handbook of Optical Metrology, Principles and Applications, CRC Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1021\/ma4023839","article-title":"In-situ optical coherence tomography (OCT) for the time-resolved investigation of crystallization processes in polymers","volume":"47","author":"Hierzenberger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2009.06.005","article-title":"An investigation of the accelerated thermal degradation of different epoxy resin composites using X-ray microcomputed tomography and optical coherence tomography","volume":"94","author":"Awaja","year":"2009","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawman, S., Williams, B., Zhang, J., Shen, Y.C., and Zheng, Y. (2017). Scanless line field optical coherence tomography, with automatic image segmentation, as a measurement tool for automotive coatings. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7040351"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31733","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31733","article-title":"Multiscale dispersion-state characterization of nanocomposites using optical coherence tomography","volume":"6","author":"Schneider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2014.05.049","article-title":"Calibration-free in-line monitoring of pellet coating processes via optical coherence tomography","volume":"125","author":"Markl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9794","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-46196-7","article-title":"Bacterial density and biofilm structure determined by optical coherence tomography","volume":"9","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2022.111049","article-title":"Revealing how maltodextrin-containing droplets dry using optical coherence tomography","volume":"157","author":"Sewalt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1080\/01457632.2021.1963550","article-title":"Fouling dynamics of SMUF on a plate heat exchanger","volume":"43","author":"Turpeinen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heat Transf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.32964\/10.32964\/TJ14.5.291","article-title":"Rheological characterization of MFC using Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"14","author":"Haavisto","year":"2015","journal-title":"TAPPI J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2014.00027","article-title":"New insight into rheology and flow properties of complex fluids with Doppler optical coherence tomography","volume":"2","author":"Haavisto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40501","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.21.4.040501","article-title":"Quantification of cell-free layer thickness and cell distribution of blood by optical coherence tomography","volume":"21","author":"Lauri","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtla.2018.06.002","article-title":"Smart dispersion: Validation of OCT and impedance spectroscopy as solutions for in-situ dispersion analysis of CNP\/EP-composites","volume":"1","author":"Meeuw","year":"2018","journal-title":"Materialia"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-014-0187-5","article-title":"The effect of wall depletion on the rheology of microfibrillated cellulose water suspensions by optical coherence tomography","volume":"21","author":"Saarinen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.3183\/npprj-2017-32-03-p473-482","article-title":"Characterization of micro-fibrillated cellulose fiber suspension flow using multi-scale velocity profile measurements","volume":"32","author":"Kataja","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koponen, A., Lauri, J., Haavisto, S., and Fabritius, T. (2018). Rheological and flocculation analysis of microfibrillated cellulose suspension using optical coherence tomography. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8050755"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3373","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-021-03745-6","article-title":"Online measurement of floc size, viscosity, and consistency of cellulose microfibril suspensions with optical coherence tomography","volume":"28","author":"Lauri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","article-title":"A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms","volume":"9","author":"Otsu","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Xu, R. (2000). Particle Characterization: Light Scattering Methods, Kluwer Pub."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1002\/ppsc.200500978","article-title":"On different approaches to estimate the mass fractal dimension of coal aggregates","volume":"22","author":"Liao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Part. Part. Syst. Charact."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2009.03.044","article-title":"Shear-induced flocculation of a suspension of kaolinite as function of pH and salt concentration","volume":"336","author":"Mietta","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/02726351.2010.504128","article-title":"Evaluation of Polyelectrolytes Performance on PCC Flocculation Using the LDS Technique","volume":"28","author":"Antunes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Part. Sci. Technol. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4117(200107)18:2<99::AID-PPSC99>3.0.CO;2-4","article-title":"In-line particle size measurement for control of jet milling","volume":"18","author":"Ma","year":"2001","journal-title":"Part. Part. Syst. Charact."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0248(92)90096-2","article-title":"Rates of nucleation in the crystallization of sucrose","volume":"118","author":"Brown","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1252\/jcej.31.122","article-title":"Continuous measurement of crystal number concentration in crystallization of fructose by laser diffraction method","volume":"31","author":"Inaba","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2023, November 20). Malvern Panalytical. Available online: https:\/\/www.malvernpanalytical.com\/en\/products\/product-range\/insitec-range."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-007-9011-y","article-title":"Process analytical technology: Application to particle sizing in spray drying","volume":"9","author":"Chan","year":"2008","journal-title":"AAPS Pharm. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3603","DOI":"10.1002\/app.31903","article-title":"Flocculation by cationic polyelectrolytes: Relating efficiency with polymer characteristics","volume":"116","author":"Rasteiro","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"6006","article-title":"Effect of Water Cationic Content on Flocculation, Flocs Resistance and Reflocculation Capacity of PCC Induced by Polyelectrolytes","volume":"47","author":"Antunes","year":"2008","journal-title":"I ECR J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2017.06.085","article-title":"Ionic strength dependence of aggregate size and morphology on polymer clay flocculation","volume":"529","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2018.10.017","article-title":"Fractal dimensions and morphological characteristics of aggregates formed in different physicochemical and mechanical flocculation environments","volume":"560","author":"Frances","year":"2019","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"2628","article-title":"Flocculation Treatment of an Industrial Effluent: Performance Assessment by Laser Diffraction Spectroscopy","volume":"57","author":"Lourenco","year":"2018","journal-title":"I ECR J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4117(200012)17:4<167::AID-PPSC167>3.0.CO;2-T","article-title":"Modeling and experimental analysis of PSD measurements through FBRM","volume":"17","author":"Ruf","year":"2000","journal-title":"Part. Part. Syst. Charact."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2023, January 03). Mettler Toledo. Available online: https:\/\/www.mt.com\/es\/en\/home\/products\/L1_AutochemProducts\/particle-size-analyzers\/particletrack-fbrm.html."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4117(199817)15:3<127::AID-PPSC127>3.0.CO;2-B","article-title":"Determination of particle size distribution by par-tec 100: Modeling and experimental results","volume":"15","author":"Tadayyon","year":"1998","journal-title":"Part. Part. Syst. Charact."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1002\/ceat.200500364","article-title":"Utilization of focused beam reflectance measurement in the control of crystal size distribution in a batch cooled crystallizer","volume":"29","author":"Barthe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1039\/D0CE01388A","article-title":"Evaluation of focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM) for monitoring and predicting the crystal size of carbamazepine in crystallization processes","volume":"23","author":"Acevedo","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Cryst. Eng. Comm."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5244","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-10643","article-title":"Focused beam reflectance measurement as a tool for in situ monitoring of the lactose crystallization process","volume":"99","author":"Pandalaneni","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-017-0819-9","article-title":"Feasibility of focused reflectance measurement (FBRM) for analysis of pharmaceutical suspensions in preclinical development","volume":"19","author":"Dave","year":"2018","journal-title":"AAPS Phar. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10126","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-46451-x","article-title":"Real-time particle size analysis using the focused beam reflectance measurement probe for in-situ fabrication of polyacrylamide-filler composite materials","volume":"9","author":"Sankaranarayanan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Blanco, A., Fuente, E., Negro, C., Monte, C., and Tijero, J. (2001, January 11). FBRM as a tool to measure flocculation. Proceedings of the TAPPI Papermakers Conference, Cincinnati, OH, USA."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2007.06.043","article-title":"Study growth kinetics in fluidized bed granulation with at-line FBRM","volume":"347","author":"Hu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2022.107637","article-title":"Selective inhibition of kaolinite entrainment during chalcopyrite flotation in saline water","volume":"184","author":"Chimonyo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2019.04.045","article-title":"Using focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM) to monitor aggregates structures formed in flocculated clay suspensions","volume":"138","author":"Kyodaa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.1028","article-title":"Focused beam reflectance technique for in situ particle sizing in wastewater treatment settling tanks","volume":"79","author":"Lant","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2006.01.027","article-title":"In-line flocculation monitoring in a Hatschek machine for fibre-cement manufacture","volume":"38","author":"Negro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Compos. Part A"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/68\/7\/R01","article-title":"Ultrasound techniques for characterizing colloidal dispersions","volume":"68","author":"Challis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rep. Prog. Phys."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s10396-018-0892-z","article-title":"Ultrasound scattering by aggregated red blood cells in patients with diabetes","volume":"46","author":"Sakaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mamou, J., and Oelze, M.L. (2013). Modeling of Ultrasound Backscattering by Aggregating Red Blood Cells, Quantitative Ultrasound in Soft Tissues, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-6952-6"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3252","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1419092","article-title":"A point process approach to assess the frequency dependence of ultrasound backscattering by aggregating red blood cells","volume":"110","author":"Savery","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Groenestijn, G.J., Meulendijks, N., Van Ee, R., Volker, A., Van Neer, P., Buskens, P., Julien, C., and Verheijen, M. (2018). Qualification of an Ultrasonic Instrument for Real-Time Monitoring of Size and Concentration of Nanoparticles during Liquid Phase Bottom-Up Synthesis. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8071064"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1907107","article-title":"The absorption of sound in suspensions and emulsions. I. Water Fog in Air","volume":"25","author":"Epstein","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0124712","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124712","article-title":"In Vivo Venous Assessment of Red Blood Cell Aggregate Sizes in Diabetic Patients with a Quantitative Cellular Ultrasound Imaging Method: Proof of Concept","volume":"10","author":"Tripette","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/11\/5\/310","article-title":"Monitoring the crystallization from solution of a reactive dye by ultrasound","volume":"11","author":"Marshall","year":"2000","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2020.115911","article-title":"Sonocrystallization: Monitoring and controlling crystallization using ultrasound","volume":"226","author":"Prasad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1021\/ie990448c","article-title":"In-Situ Monitoring of Batch Crystallization by Ultrasound Spectroscopy","volume":"39","author":"Hipp","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1006\/jcis.1998.5569","article-title":"Ultrasonic Spectroscopy Study of Flocculation and Shear-Induced Floc Disruption in Oil-in-Water Emulsions","volume":"204","author":"Chanamai","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/0927-7757(94)02881-8","article-title":"Ultrasonic determination of depletion flocculation in oil-in-water emulsions containing a non-ionic surfactant","volume":"90","author":"McClements","year":"1994","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."}],"container-title":["Powders"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2674-0516\/3\/1\/7\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:13:47Z","timestamp":1760105627000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2674-0516\/3\/1\/7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,14]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["powders3010007"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/powders3010007","relation":{},"ISSN":["2674-0516"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2674-0516","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,14]]}}}