{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T03:02:42Z","timestamp":1760151762119,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,17]],"date-time":"2022-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Processes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>COVID-19 vaccines are used worldwide to promote immunity and, in that sense, vaccination is a step forward toward ending the pandemic. Nevertheless, current vaccines must be ultra-cold or cold-stored. Vaccine coolers\u2019 energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions lead to a significant environmental impact. This article predicts the environmental and energy impacts of some COVID-19 vaccines: Moderna, Janssen, CoronaVac, Pfizer, AstraZeneca\u2013Oxford\u2013Covishield, and Sputnik V, in terms of carbon dioxide emissions using a new approach for the TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact) methodology, with several options of refrigerants from halogenated to natural fluids such as propane, which is natural gas with low GWP (global warming potential). Through the application of new optimization indexes, it is concluded that the evaporation temperature of the refrigerant gas has a great influence on the sizing of the coolers. For example, for the same number of vaccines, the thermal load of Pfizer is more than double that of AstraZeneca\u2013Covishield, CoronaVac, or Janssen, while the direct environmental impact is seven times greater. Another relevant factor is the choice of refrigerant. For example, the greenhouse effect varies greatly for the same brand of vaccine. The Moderna vaccine\u2019s global warming potential (GWP) is 776 times higher using R-449A gas than using R-290 (propane gas). In Brazil, the refrigerators used to store the Pfizer vaccine have a total TEWI almost two times higher than the total TEWI of refrigerators using propane to store the Janssen vaccine. At this time of the pandemic, these optimization indexes can be used to support important decisions regarding the future selection of vaccine brands considering the energy consumption and environmental impact required for their storage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pr10040790","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]],"date-time":"2022-04-19T02:39:31Z","timestamp":1650335971000},"page":"790","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Evaluating the Energy Efficiency and Environmental Impact of COVID-19 Vaccines Coolers through New Optimization Indexes: Comparison between Refrigeration Systems Using HFC or Natural Refrigerants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Alexandre F.","family":"Santos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"FAPRO\u2014Professional College, Curitiba 80230-040, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1691-1709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro D.","family":"Gaspar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Centre for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Heraldo J. L.","family":"de Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FAPRO\u2014Professional College, Curitiba 80230-040, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"NCIRD (2021, December 14). Divis\u00f5es de Doen\u00e7as Virais. Centro Nacional Para Doen\u00e7as Respirat\u00f3rias e Imuniza\u00e7\u00f5es (NCIRD), Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/vaccines\/different-vaccines.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"PFIZER (2021, December 14). Vacina ma Mensageiro. Available online: https:\/\/www.pfizer.com.br\/noticias\/ultimas-noticias%20\/vacina-de-rna-mensageiro."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"SBIm (2021, December 23). Vacinas de Vetores Virais\u2013Vacinas n\u00e3o Replicantes. Sociedade Brasileira de Imuniza\u00e7\u00f5es (SBIm). Available online: https:\/\/familia.sbim.org.br\/COVID19\/Comofunciona."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"SBIm (2021, December 23). 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Available online: https:\/\/news.un.org\/en\/story\/2021\/12\/1107632."}],"container-title":["Processes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9717\/10\/4\/790\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:55:41Z","timestamp":1760136941000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9717\/10\/4\/790"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,17]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["pr10040790"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pr10040790","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9717"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2227-9717"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,17]]}}}