{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T12:25:09Z","timestamp":1770726309769,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]],"date-time":"2025-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755475200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/130588\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/130588\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Processes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Usually, biomass combustion in grate-fired boilers presents significant challenges due to the heterogeneous nature of the fuel, chemical composition variability, and complex thermal and chemical conversion processes along the grate. Accurate modeling of the fuel bed conversion is critical for optimizing combustion performance and reducing emissions. However, detailed bed models are often computationally intensive and time-consuming. To address this issue, the present work details a simplified empirical bed model that is integrated into a 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of a 35 MW industrial grate-fired boiler. The model successfully reproduced the flue gas mass flow rate, temperature, and chemical composition across different grate sections, predicting an average furnace outlet temperature of 994 \u00b0C, CO mass fraction of 779 mg\/m3, CO2 concentration of 12 vol.%, and O2 concentration of 9.5 vol.%. These results fall within the range reported in recent CFD studies of similar systems and are consistent with operational monitoring data from the same plant. Sensitivity analyses showed that modifying the primary-to-secondary-air split ratio from 79\/21 to 40\/60 reduced the average CO mass fraction at the furnace outlet by more than 50%. Additionally, the average furnace temperature increased up to 1050 \u00b0C, enhancing combustion efficiency. The CFD model also demonstrated that relocating char combustion to later grate sections led to temperature imbalances near the boiler walls, emphasizing the importance of grate-specific conversion profiles. These results underscore the model\u2019s ability to guide air distribution optimization, improve combustion performance, and reduce pollutant emissions in biomass boilers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pr13082617","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]],"date-time":"2025-08-18T15:34:53Z","timestamp":1755531293000},"page":"2617","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Development of a CFD Model to Study the Fundamental Phenomena Associated with Biomass Combustion in a Grate-Fired Boiler"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3518-7111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Pedro","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MEtRICs Research Centre, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"},{"name":"ALGORITMI Research Centre\/LASI, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7464-3944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Senhorinha","family":"Teixeira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ALGORITMI Research Centre\/LASI, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8459-1837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Carlos","family":"Teixeira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MEtRICs Research Centre, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.09.287","article-title":"Environmental impacts of forest biomass-to-energy conversion technologies: Grate furnace vs. fluidised bed furnace","volume":"171","author":"Quinteiro","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2012.01.036","article-title":"An overview of CFD modelling of small-scale fixed-bed biomass pellet boilers with preliminary results from a simplified approach","volume":"63","author":"Chaney","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2015.05.099","article-title":"An overview of processes and considerations in the modelling of fixed-bed biomass combustion","volume":"88","author":"Khodaei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.P., Teixeira, S., Peters, B., and Teixeira, J.C. (2021, January 1\u20135). Survey of Existing Literature Data on the Biomass Combustion Behavior in Industrial Grate-Fired Boilers. Proceedings of the ASME 2021 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Virtual.","DOI":"10.1115\/IMECE2021-73567"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-2180(95)00190-5","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of municipal solid waste incinerator designs by flow simulation","volume":"106","author":"Kim","year":"1996","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"3290616","article-title":"Particle Dynamics in a Biomass-Fired Furnace\u2014Predictions of Solid Residence Changes with Operation","volume":"30","author":"Griselin","year":"2000","journal-title":"IFRF Combust. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-053X(02)00070-3","article-title":"Characterization of municipal solid waste combustion in a grate furnace","volume":"23","author":"Frey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Scharler, R., and Obernberger, I. (2000, January 11\u201314). Numerical Modelling of Biomass Grate Furnaces. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, Porto, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"102","article-title":"Modification of a Magnussen Constant of the Eddy Dissipation Model for biomass grate furnaces by means of hot gas in-situ FT-IR absorption spectroscopy, Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics","volume":"3","author":"Scharler","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1504\/PCFD.2006.010581","article-title":"Combustion process in a biomass grate fired industry furnace: A CFD study","volume":"6","author":"Klason","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Comput. Fluid Dyn. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2007.11.016","article-title":"Investigation of radiative heat transfer in fixed bed biomass furnaces","volume":"87","author":"Klason","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1021\/ef700689r","article-title":"Mathematical modeling and experimental study of biomass combustion in a thermal 108 MW grate-fired boiler","volume":"22","author":"Yin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2012.02.050","article-title":"Characterizing and modeling of an 88 MW grate-fired boiler burning wheat straw: Experience and lessons","volume":"41","author":"Yin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Paper, C., Universit, F.A., Costa, M., National, I., Universit, A.M., and Pegaso, T. (2015, January 17\u201320). Experimental and numerical analysis of a waste-to-energy plant operation. Proceedings of the ASME-ATI-UIT 2015 Conference on Thermal Energy Systems: Production, Storage, Utilization and the Environment, Napoli, Italy."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.07.142","article-title":"RDF incineration modelling trough thermo-chemical conversion and gaseous combustion coupling","volume":"161","author":"Costa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2017.12.732","article-title":"Experimental and numerical study on the combustion of a 32 MW wood-chip grate boiler with internal flue gas recirculation technology","volume":"143","author":"Tu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2017.12.018","article-title":"NOX reduction in a 40 t\/h biomass fired grate boiler using internal flue gas recirculation technology","volume":"220","author":"Tu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2003.12.003","article-title":"Numerical modelling of a straw-fired grate boiler","volume":"83","year":"2004","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"200401","article-title":"Analysis of grate firing of wood with numerical flow simulation","volume":"18","author":"Huttunen","year":"2004","journal-title":"IFRF Combust. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1179\/014426005X50850","article-title":"Optimisation study of a large waste-to-energy plant using computational modelling and experimental measurements","volume":"78","author":"Goddard","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2004.08.017","article-title":"Straw combustion on slow-moving grates\u2014A comparison of model predictions with experimental data","volume":"28","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2006.06.023","article-title":"Mathematical modelling of straw combustion in a 38 MWe power plant furnace and effect of operating conditions","volume":"86","author":"Yang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2010.03.038","article-title":"Modeling of multiphase combustion and deposit formation in a biomass-fed furnace","volume":"35","author":"Venturini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2009.10.006","article-title":"Mathematical modeling of combustion in a grate-fired boiler burning straw and effect of operating conditions under air- and oxygen-enriched atmospheres","volume":"35","author":"Yu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2010.05.026","article-title":"Experimental investigation and mathematical modelling of wood combustion in a moving grate boiler","volume":"91","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2014.11.958","article-title":"A Detailed Study of a Multi-MW Biomass Combustor by Numerical Analysis: Evaluation of Fuel Characteristics Impact","volume":"61","author":"Cordiner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2015.02.034","article-title":"Effects of Flue Gas Recirculation on Emissions from a Small Scale Wood Chip Fired Boiler","volume":"66","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2008.08.024","article-title":"Numerical analysis of the thermo-fluid-dynamic field in the combustion chamber of an incinerator plant","volume":"34","author":"Costa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2012.06.043","article-title":"Temperature and residence time of the combustion products in a waste-to-energy plant","volume":"102","author":"Costa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1108\/HFF-10-2014-0300","article-title":"Modeling and optimization of an incinerator plant for the reduction of the environmental impact","volume":"25","author":"Costa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Methods Heat Fluid Flow"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2016.02.036","article-title":"Advanced modelling and testing of a 13 MWth waste wood-fired grate boiler with recycled flue gas","volume":"125","author":"Rajh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.04.030","article-title":"Advanced CFD modelling of air and recycled flue gas staging in a waste wood-fired grate boiler for higher combustion efficiency and greater environmental benefits","volume":"218","author":"Rajh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-053X(02)00019-3","article-title":"Mathematical modelling of MSW incineration on a travelling bed","volume":"22","author":"Yang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.combustflame.2013.04.015","article-title":"Investigation of factors affecting channelling in fixed-bed solid fuel combustion using CFD","volume":"160","author":"Duffy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.combustflame.2015.12.032","article-title":"Investigation of 3D flow and heat transfer in solid-fuel grate combustion: Measures to reduce high-temperature degradation","volume":"167","author":"Duffy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2015.11.085","article-title":"Biomass furnace for externally fired gas turbine: Development and validation of the numerical model","volume":"96","author":"Galletti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2018.02.083","article-title":"Combustion of wood-chips in a small-scale fixed-bed boiler: Validation of the numerical model through in-flame measurements","volume":"221","author":"Patronelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2018.05.008","article-title":"Modelling grate combustion of biomass and low rank fuels with CFD application","volume":"78","author":"Gehrmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16599","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.0c02868","article-title":"Stochastic Reactor-Based Fuel Bed Model for Grate Furnaces","volume":"34","author":"Netzer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2009.03.011","article-title":"Numerical simulation of grate firing systems using a coupled CFD\/discrete element method (DEM)","volume":"193","author":"Simsek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2015.11.015","article-title":"Modeling of the biomass combustion on a forward acting grate using XDEM","volume":"142","author":"Mahmoudi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2017.06.037","article-title":"Simulating municipal solid waste incineration with a DEM\/CFD method\u2014Influences of waste properties, grate and furnace design","volume":"206","author":"Wissing","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.10.042","article-title":"CFD modeling of biomass grate combustion using a steady-state discrete particle model (DPM) approach","volume":"148","author":"Somwangthanaroj","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1080\/01457630903501062","article-title":"Improvement of a combustion unit based on a grate furnace for granular dry solid biofuels using CFD methods","volume":"31","author":"Jordan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Heat Transf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/13647830.2011.610903","article-title":"CFD simulation of wood chip combustion on a grate using an Euler\u2013Euler approach","volume":"16","author":"Kurz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Combust. Theory Model."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1504\/PCFD.2013.055060","article-title":"Euler-Euler simulation of wood chip combustion on a grate\u2014Effect of fuel moisture content and full scale application","volume":"13","author":"Kurz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Comput. Fluid Dyn. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2018.02.195","article-title":"CFD modelling of combustion and associated emission of wet woody biomass in a 4 MW moving grate boiler","volume":"222","author":"Karim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2017.11.024","article-title":"Efficient diagnosis of grate-fired biomass boilers by a simplified CFD-based approach","volume":"171","author":"Rezeau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2019.106219","article-title":"Three-dimensional CFD simulation of a large-scale grate-fired biomass furnace","volume":"198","author":"Porteiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.115055","article-title":"The impacts of different profiles of the grate inlet conditions on freeboard CFD in a waste wood-fired grate boiler","volume":"268","author":"Zadravec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2014.07.067","article-title":"Engineering bed models for solid fuel conversion process in grate-fired boilers","volume":"77","author":"Costa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1021\/ef010097q","article-title":"Composition of volatile gases and thermochemical properties of wood for modeling of fixed or fluidized beds","volume":"15","author":"Thunman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2011.01.001","article-title":"Characterization and prediction of biomass pyrolysis products","volume":"37","author":"Neves","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2014.01.027","article-title":"Multi-physics modelling of packed bed biomass combustion","volume":"122","author":"Mehrabian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Wilcox, B. (1992). Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises, Inc.. [40th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clet.2021.100334","article-title":"Analysis and monitoring of the combustion performance in a biomass power plant","volume":"5","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clean. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.P., Teixeira, S., and Teixeira, J.C. (2023). Characterization of the physicochemical and thermal properties of different forest residues. Biomass Bioenergy, 175.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2023.106870"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J., Castro, C., Teixeira, S., and Teixeira, J. (2022). Evaluation of the Gas Emissions during the Thermochemical Conversion of Eucalyptus Woodchips. Processes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr10112413"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraga, L.G., Silva, J., Teixeira, J.C., Ferreira, M.E.C., Teixeira, S.F., Vilarinho, C., and Gon\u00e7alves, M.M. (2022). Study of Mass Loss and Elemental Analysis of Pine Wood Pellets in a Small-Scale Reactor. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15145253"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.P., Teixeira, S., and Teixeira, J.C. (2025). Thermogravimetric Assessment and Kinetic Analysis of Forestry Residues Combustion. Energies, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/en18133299"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-2361(03)00145-5","article-title":"Effects of fuel devolatilisation on the combustion of wood chips and incineration of simulated municipal solid wastes in a packed bed","volume":"82","author":"Yang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S0082-0784(77)80366-4","article-title":"On mathematical modeling of turbulent combustion with special emphasis on soot formation and combustion","volume":"16","author":"Magnussen","year":"1977","journal-title":"Symp. Int. Combust."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magnussen, B. (1981, January 12\u201315). On the structure of turbulence and a generalized eddy dissipation concept for chemical reaction in turbulent flow. Proceedings of the 19th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.1981-42"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9967","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.7b00516","article-title":"Effect of the Turbulence\u2013Chemistry Interaction in Packed-Bed Biomass Combustion","volume":"31","author":"Chapela","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2014.02.040","article-title":"Development of a gas phase combustion model suitable for low and high turbulence conditions","volume":"126","author":"Shiehnejadhesar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2015.07.029","article-title":"Development and validation of CFD models for gas phase reactions in biomass grate furnaces considering gas streak formation above the packed bed","volume":"139","author":"Shiehnejadhesar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Rajh, B., Yin, C., and Samec, N. (October, January 30). CFD modeling and experience of waste-to-energy plant burning waste wood. Proceedings of the 14th International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Cagliari, Italy."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strempek, J.R., and Jorgensen, K.L. (November, January 31). Use of Numerical Modeling to Compare Overfire Air Systems on Stoker-Fired Furnaces. Proceedings of the ASME 2008 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/IMECE2008-68348"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2023.122043","article-title":"Optimizing biomass combustion in a 130 t\/h grate boiler: Assessing gas-phase reaction models and primary air distribution strategies","volume":"238","author":"Su","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2024.133583","article-title":"Efficient and low-NO combustion in a grate-fired boiler by feeding biomass non-uniformly along grate width: An integrated modeling study with experimental validation","volume":"312","author":"Su","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2017.02.068","article-title":"Reducing CO emissions through a secondary air nozzle retrofit based on the jet penetration factor and the momentum flux ratio of a commercial wood waste incinerator","volume":"118","author":"Choi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jorgensen, K.L., Wessel, R., and Strempek, J. (2002, January 17\u201322). Numerical Simulation of Combustion Air Systems for Large Industrial Boilers. Proceedings of the ASME 2002 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/IMECE2002-39295"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2008.05.002","article-title":"Grate-firing of biomass for heat and power production","volume":"34","author":"Yin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119193","article-title":"Numerical investigation of MSW combustion influenced by air preheating in a full-scale moving grate incinerator","volume":"285","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"}],"container-title":["Processes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9717\/13\/8\/2617\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:30:17Z","timestamp":1760034617000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9717\/13\/8\/2617"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["pr13082617"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pr13082617","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9717"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9717","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]}}}