{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T06:06:44Z","timestamp":1775196404731,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Processes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Railway bogies are typically engineered with conservative safety margins, which frequently results in the premature disposal of components retaining significant structural integrity. This study proposes a comprehensive 3D modelling framework designed to accurately predict and extend the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of the bogie structure. To achieve this, a Building Information Modelling (BIM) approach was used, not only for the bogie, but for all train, using a rolling stock in Portugal as a case study. The use of both real and virtual sensors installed in the bogie, with data collected with a sampling rate according to the specificity of each sensor and, next, managed through machine learning tools, allows to implement a predictive maintenance (PdM) policy that aid to extend the RUL. The proposed approach demonstrates that extending the operational life of the bogie is both feasible and safe. This facilitates a strategic transition from the current practices to new approaches that improve the Availability of the Physical Assets, including through the metaverse.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pr14071119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T15:20:47Z","timestamp":1774884047000},"page":"1119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["3D Railway Modelling for Extending the Remaining Useful Life of a Bogie"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5290-5074","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Matos","family":"Coutinho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Engenharia Eletromec\u00e2nica, University Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"RCM2+\u2014Research Center for Management Engineering and Asset Systems, Institute of Engineering, Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua Pedro Nunes\u2014Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"CISE\u2014Electromechatronic Systems Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1682-5950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugo","family":"Raposo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RCM2+\u2014Research Center for Management Engineering and Asset Systems, Institute of Engineering, Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua Pedro Nunes\u2014Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Coimbra Institute of Engineering, IPC\u2014Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua da Miseric\u00f3rdia, Lagar dos Corti\u00e7os, S. Martinho do Bispo, 3045-093 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9694-8079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Torres","family":"Farinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RCM2+\u2014Research Center for Management Engineering and Asset Systems, Institute of Engineering, Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua Pedro Nunes\u2014Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Coimbra Institute of Engineering, IPC\u2014Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua da Miseric\u00f3rdia, Lagar dos Corti\u00e7os, S. Martinho do Bispo, 3045-093 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8737-6999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio J.","family":"Marques Cardoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CISE\u2014Electromechatronic Systems Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrst.2025.08.001","article-title":"A Critical Review of Operations Research on the Operation and Maintenance of Railway Systems","volume":"1","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Railw. Sci. 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