{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T18:11:34Z","timestamp":1775758294114,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,10]],"date-time":"2021-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631232000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Processes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Massive quantities of spent coffee grounds (SCGs) are generated by users around the world. Different processes have been proposed for SCG valorization, including pyrolytic processes to achieve carbonaceous materials. Here, we report the preparation of activated carbons through pyrolytic processes carried out under different experimental conditions and in the presence of various porosity activators. Textural and chemical characterization of the obtained carbons have been achieved through Brunauer\u2013Emmett\u2013Teller (BET), ESEM, 13C solid state NMR, XPS, XRD, thermogravimetric and spectroscopic determinations. The aim of the paper is to relate these data to the preparation method, evaluating the correlation between the spectroscopic data and the physical and textural properties, also in comparison with the corresponding data obtained for three commercial activated carbons used in industrial adsorption processes. Some correlations have been observed between the Raman and XPS data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9091637","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,12]],"date-time":"2021-09-12T21:48:01Z","timestamp":1631483281000},"page":"1637","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Novel Correlations between Spectroscopic and Morphological Properties of Activated Carbons from Waste Coffee Grounds"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Egle","family":"Rosson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0938-953X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Sgarbossa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"given":"Mirto","family":"Mozzon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Venturino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9152-3602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Bogialli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4334-2150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonella","family":"Glisenti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"given":"Aldo","family":"Talon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Molecolari e Nanosistemi, Universit\u00e0 Ca\u2019 Foscari Venezia, via Torino 155, 30172 Venezia Mestre, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3983-7951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Moretti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Molecolari e Nanosistemi, Universit\u00e0 Ca\u2019 Foscari Venezia, via Torino 155, 30172 Venezia Mestre, Italy"}]},{"given":"Sara Maria","family":"Carturan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, Laboratori INFN, viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 2, 35020 Legnaro, Italy"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Tamburini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Chimica della Materia Condensata e di Tecnologie per l\u2019Energia, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy"}]},{"given":"Alessia","family":"Famengo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Chimica della Materia Condensata e di Tecnologie per l\u2019Energia, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4323-4328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Paula","family":"da Costa Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Qu\u00edmica Estrutural, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Lisbona, Avenida Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Sadjia","family":"Benhabiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Etude sur les Interactions Mat\u00e9riaux-Environnement, Facult\u00e9 des Science et de la Technologie, Universit\u00e9 Mohamed Seddik BenYahia, BP 98 Ouled Aissa, Jijel 18000, Algeria"}]},{"given":"Rida","family":"Kamel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Etude sur les Interactions Mat\u00e9riaux-Environnement, Facult\u00e9 des Science et de la Technologie, Universit\u00e9 Mohamed Seddik BenYahia, BP 98 Ouled Aissa, Jijel 18000, Algeria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8175-7798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federico","family":"Zorzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro di Analisi e Servizi per la Certificazione, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via Jappelli 1, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3058-7546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Bertani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, via F. Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Galanakis, C. (2017). Handbook of Coffee Processing By-Products: Sustainable Applications, Academic Press. [1st ed.]. Chapters 3 and 9, In Particular."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.11.230","article-title":"Food waste valorisation advocating circular bioeconomy. A critical review of potentialities and perspectives of spent coffee grounds biorefinery","volume":"211","author":"Zabaniotou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2015.04.012","article-title":"Spent coffee grounds: A review on current research and future prospects","volume":"45","author":"Oomah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2017.10.042","article-title":"A spent coffee grounds based biorefinery for the production of biofuels, biopolymers, antioxidants and biocomposites","volume":"72","author":"Karmee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2019.04.026","article-title":"Reusing, recycling and up-cycling of biomass: A review of practical and kinetic modelling approaches","volume":"192","author":"Osman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.115640","article-title":"Valorization of spent coffee grounds into biofuels and value-added products: Pathway towards integrated bio-refinery","volume":"254","author":"Atabani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbp.2019.08.010","article-title":"Conceptualization of a spent coffee grounds biorefinery: A review of existing valorisation approaches","volume":"118","author":"Massaya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Bioprod. Process."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-011-0565-z","article-title":"Production, composition, and application of coffee and its industrial residues","volume":"4","author":"Mussatto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1007\/s10163-017-0621-5","article-title":"The broad spectrum of possibilities for spent coffee grounds valorisation","volume":"20","author":"Girotto","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35776","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-2359-6","article-title":"Converting environmental risks to benefits by using spent coffee grounds (SCG) as a valuable resource","volume":"25","author":"Stylianou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2017.10.021","article-title":"Valorization of spent coffee grounds\u2014A new approach","volume":"192","author":"Peshev","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2018.10.018","article-title":"Development of an advanced integrative process to create valuable biosugars including manno-oligosaccharides and mannose from spent coffee grounds","volume":"272","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2019.111484","article-title":"Complete utilization of wet spent coffee grounds waste as a novel feedstock for antioxidant, biodiesel, and bio-char production","volume":"138","author":"Tongcumpou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ind. Crop. Prod."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123800","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2020.123800","article-title":"A review on valorization of spent coffee grounds (SCG) towards biopolymers and biocatalysts production","volume":"314","author":"Bhosale","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6258151","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6258151","article-title":"Characterization of alkaline treatment and fiber content on the physical, thermal and mechanical properties of ground coffee waste\/oxobiodegradable HDPE biocomposites","volume":"2017","author":"Tan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.06.195","article-title":"Spent coffee grounds as supporting materials to produce biocomposite PCM with natural waxes","volume":"235","author":"Yoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2018.11.005","article-title":"Spent coffee grounds: Massively supplied carbohydrate polymer applicable to electrorheology","volume":"562","author":"Chun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2014.11.018","article-title":"Revalorization of spent coffee residues by a direct agronomic approach","volume":"71","author":"Cruz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"697","article-title":"The effect of increased doses of compost on leaching of mineral nitrogen from arable land","volume":"23","author":"Elbl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pol. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/0141-4607(86)90076-4","article-title":"Effect of feeding spent coffee grounds on the feedlot performance of carcass quality of fattening pigs","volume":"18","author":"Sikka","year":"1986","journal-title":"Agric. Wastes"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2018.11.003","article-title":"Characterization of residual biomasses from the coffee production chain and assessment the potential for energy purposes","volume":"120","author":"Vakkilainen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenerg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2019.122334","article-title":"Biodiesel production by direct transesterification of wet spent coffee grounds using switchable solvent as a catalyst and solvent","volume":"296","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jechem.2015.11.012","article-title":"Spent coffee ground as source for hydrocarbon fuels","volume":"25","author":"Dohlert","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Energy Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"29252","article-title":"The effect of temperature, heating rate and ZSM-5 catalyst on the product selectivity of the fast pyrolysis of spent coffee grounds","volume":"5","author":"Fischer","year":"2015","journal-title":"RCS Adv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2014.12.031","article-title":"Coffee extract residue for production of ethanol and activated carbons","volume":"91","author":"Tehrani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1021\/sc400145w","article-title":"Complete utilization of spent coffee grounds to produce biodiesel, bio-oil and biochar","volume":"1","author":"Vardon","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2018.05.097","article-title":"Influence of the temperature in the yield and composition of the bio-oil from the pyrolysis of spent coffee grounds: Characterization by comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography","volume":"232","author":"Primaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7398","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.9b01354","article-title":"Two-step gasification of biochar for hydrogen-rich gas production: Effect of the biochar type and catalyst","volume":"33","author":"Cay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s10098-015-1083-x","article-title":"Adsorption characteristics of activated carbon prepared from spent ground coffee","volume":"18","author":"Jutakridsada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clean Technol. Environ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alcaraz, L., Escudero, M.E., Alguacil, F.J., Llorente, I., Urbieta, A., Fernandez, P., and Lopez, F.A. (2019). Dysprosium removal from water using active carbons obtained from spent coffee ground. Nanomaterials, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201908.0076.v1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.04.091","article-title":"Removal of lead and fluoride from contaminated water using exhausted coffee grounds based bio-sorbent","volume":"218","author":"Babu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24850","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-05717-7","article-title":"Activated carbon produced from waste coffee grounds for an effective removal of bisphenol-A in aqueous medium","volume":"26","author":"Antero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12769","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69778-2","article-title":"Preparation of efficient photothermal materials from waste coffee grounds for solar evaporation and water purification","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, S., and Liang, C. (2021). Evaluation of the engineering properties of powdered activated carbon amendments in porous asphalt pavement. Processes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9040582"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2017.11.029","article-title":"Influence of ultrasonic waves on preparation of active carbon from coffee waste for the reclamation of effluents containing Cr(VI) ions","volume":"60","author":"Suganya","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2014.02.004","article-title":"Development of a new adsorbent from agro-industrial waste and its potential use in endocrine disruptor compound removal","volume":"271","author":"Rovani","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2014.03.052","article-title":"Hydrogen sulphide removal on carbonaceous adsorbents prepared from coffee industry waste materials","volume":"248","author":"Nowicki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/ghg.1740","article-title":"Sustainable coffee-based CO2 adsorbents: Toward a greener production via hydrothermal carbonization","volume":"8","author":"Querejeta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Greenh. Gases Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"29558","article-title":"Superior CO2 adsorption from waste coffee ground derived carbons","volume":"5","author":"Travis","year":"2015","journal-title":"RCS Adv."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, M.G., Ahmed, M.M.M., Du, W.T., and Kuo, S.W. (2021). Meso\/Microporous carbon from conjugated hyper-crosslinked polymers based on tetraphenylethene for high-performance CO2 capture and supercapacitor. Molecules, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26030738"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2020.109954","article-title":"Directly synthesized nitrogen and oxygen doped microporous carbons derived from a bio-derived polybenzoxazine exhibiting high-performance supercapacitance and CO2 uptake","volume":"138","author":"Samy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385602","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/26\/38\/385602","article-title":"Activated carbon derived from waste coffee grounds for stable methane storage","volume":"26","author":"Kemp","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2010.09.102","article-title":"Hydrogen storage ability of porous carbon material fabricated from coffee bean wastes","volume":"36","author":"Akasaka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.33961\/JECST.2018.9.3.163","article-title":"Biomass waste, coffee grounds-derived carbon for lithium storage","volume":"9","author":"Um","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2018.03.106","article-title":"Insights into the thermolytic transformation of lignocellulosic biomass waste to redox-active carbocatalyst: Durability of surface active sites","volume":"233","author":"Oh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2013.05.017","article-title":"A friendly environmental material: Iron oxide dispersed over activated carbon from coffee husk for organic pollutants removal","volume":"127","author":"Goncalves","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16991","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.9b02405","article-title":"Renewable coffee waste-derived porous carbons as anode materials for high-performance sustainable microbial fuel cells","volume":"7","author":"Hung","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12734","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.9b00971","article-title":"Waste beverage coffee-induced hard carbon granules for sodium-ion batteries","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2019.134931","article-title":"Hierarchically porous carbon from waste coffee grounds for high-performance Li-Se batteries","volume":"325","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, J., Zequine, C., Bhoyate, S., Lin, W., Li, X., Kahol, P., and Gupta, R. (2019). Waste coffee management: Deriving high-performance supercapacitors using nitrogen-doped coffee-derived carbon. C J. Carbon Res., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/c5030044"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24713","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-2525-x","article-title":"Improvement of activated carbon characteristics by sonication and its application for pharmaceutical contaminant adsorption","volume":"25","author":"Frohlich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2018.10.009","article-title":"Investigation into role of CO2 in two-stage pyrolysis of spent coffee grounds","volume":"272","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.01.102","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of microporous activated carbon from coffee grounds using potassium hydroxide","volume":"147","author":"Laksaci","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2017.09.036","article-title":"Valorization of coffee grounds into activated carbon using physic-chemical activation by KOH\/CO2","volume":"5","author":"Laksaci","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-6223(94)00100-E","article-title":"The use of steam and CO2 as activating agents in the preparation of activated carbons","volume":"33","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1995","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2019.04.050","article-title":"Effect of activating agents for producing activated carbon using a facile one-step synthesis with waste coffee grounds for symmetric supercapacitors","volume":"101","author":"Chiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apt.2016.04.033","article-title":"High-capacitance KOH-activated nitrogen-containing porous carbon material from waste coffee grounds in supercapacitors","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Power Technol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2013.07.056","article-title":"The chemical composition of exhausted coffee waste","volume":"50","author":"Pujol","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind. Crop. Prod."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2010.06.058","article-title":"Thermal characterization of tropical biomass feedstocks","volume":"52","author":"Wilson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Conv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"11","article-title":"Determination of surface oxygen functional groups of active carbons according to Bohem\u2019s titration method","volume":"84","author":"Pawlicka","year":"2013","journal-title":"For. Wood Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2007.07.048","article-title":"Adsorptive removal of acrylonitrile by commercial grade activated carbon: Kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics","volume":"152","author":"Kumar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3493","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-014-1349-z","article-title":"Chemical, functional and structural properties of spent coffee grounds and coffee silverskin","volume":"7","author":"Ballesteros","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1021\/ef000058z","article-title":"Characterization of char pyrolysis of chlorogenic acid","volume":"14","author":"Sharma","year":"2000","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5446","DOI":"10.1021\/jf300348e","article-title":"Fourier transform infrared and physicochemical analyses of roasted coffee","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2014.08.012","article-title":"Energy recovery potential analysis of spent coffee grounds pyrolysis products","volume":"110","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2011.02.012","article-title":"TGA and macro-TGA characterization of biomass fuels and fuel mixtures","volume":"90","author":"Skreiberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2017.12.007","article-title":"Thermochemical decomposition of coffee ground residues by TG-MS: A kinetic study","volume":"130","author":"Fermoso","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vibspec.2012.06.006","article-title":"Imaging of mineral-enriched biochar by FTIR, Raman and SEM-EDX","volume":"62","author":"Chia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vib. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2005.01.040","article-title":"Structure of new carbonaceous materials: The role of vibrational spectroscopy","volume":"43","author":"Centrone","year":"2005","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1021\/ef0000431","article-title":"An attempt to correlate conversion in pyrolysis and gasification with FT-IR spectra of coals","volume":"14","author":"Zhuo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1487434","article-title":"Raman spectroscopic investigations of activated carbon materials","volume":"92","author":"Shimodaira","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14095","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.61.14095","article-title":"Interpretation of Raman spectra of disordered and amorphous carbon","volume":"61","author":"Ferrari","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssc.2007.03.052","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy of graphene and graphite: Disorder, electron-phonon coupling, doping and nonadiabatic effects","volume":"143","author":"Ferrari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Solid State Commun."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032183","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4756995","article-title":"A Raman spectroscopic investigation of graphite oxide derived graphene","volume":"2","author":"Kaniyoor","year":"2012","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physrep.2009.02.003","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy in graphene","volume":"473","author":"Malard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1039\/B613962K","article-title":"Studying disorder in graphite-based systems by Raman spectroscopy","volume":"9","author":"Pimenta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5435","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.58.5435","article-title":"Temperature-dependent Raman spectra and anomalous Raman phenomenon of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite","volume":"58","author":"Tan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan, D.J. (2021). Comments on the XPS analysis of carbon materials. J. Carbon Res., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/c7030051"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2018.04.269","article-title":"C sp2\/sp3 hybridisations in carbon materials\u2014XPS and (X)AES study","volume":"452","author":"Lesiak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.10.059","article-title":"Investigation of pore size distributions of coals with different structures by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mercury intrusion porosimetry","volume":"116","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2013.11.002","article-title":"The influence of feedstock and production temperature on biochar carbon chemistry: A solid-state 13C NMR study","volume":"60","author":"McBeath","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenerg."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-5813(17)30053-1","article-title":"Calibration of solid state NMR carbon structural parameters and application in coal structure analysis","volume":"45","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fuel Chem. Technol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2801","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6223(02)00196-3","article-title":"Electrical conductivity of carbonaceous powders","volume":"40","author":"Celzard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2004.10.045","article-title":"Electrical conductivity of carbon black under compressin","volume":"43","year":"2005","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2010.09.013","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from a new raw lignocellulosic material: Flamboyant (Delonix regia) pods","volume":"92","author":"Vargas","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3505","DOI":"10.1021\/la026778a","article-title":"Basic surface oxides on carbon materials: A global view","volume":"19","author":"Fuente","year":"2003","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schonner, J., Buchheim, J.R., Scholz, P., and Adelhelm, P. (2018). Boehm titration revisited (part I): Practical aspects for achieving a high precision in quantifyng oxygen-containing surface groups on carbon materials. C J. Carbon Res., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/c4020021"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117001","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.48.117001","article-title":"Detailed structural analyses of KOH activated carbon from waste coffee beans","volume":"48","author":"Takahata","year":"2009","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodriguez Correa, C., and Kruse, A. (2018). Biobased functional carbon materials: Production, characterization, and applications\u2014A review. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11091568"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3684","DOI":"10.1021\/am5081919","article-title":"Hierarchically porous carbon nanosheets from waste coffee grounds for supercapacitors","volume":"7","author":"Yun","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2020.06.013","article-title":"Construction hierarchically mesoporous\/microporous materials based on block copolymer and covalent organic framework","volume":"112","author":"Mohamed","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3443","DOI":"10.1007\/s11581-019-02887-9","article-title":"Porous carbon electrodes from activated wastes coffee grounds for capacitive deionization","volume":"25","author":"Qian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ionics"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17706","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54205-y","article-title":"Extraction of polyphenols and synthesis of new activated carbon from spent coffee grounds","volume":"9","author":"Alcarez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Processes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9717\/9\/9\/1637\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:00:49Z","timestamp":1760166049000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9717\/9\/9\/1637"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,10]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pr9091637"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pr9091637","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9717"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9717","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,10]]}}}