{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T02:12:41Z","timestamp":1770084761669,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EXPL\/ECI-EGC\/1585\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EXPL\/ECI-EGC\/1585\/2021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/6438\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/6438\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Portuguese Pluriannual Base Funding for Technology and Innovation Centres","award":["03\/C05-i02\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["03\/C05-i02\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Recycling"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance resource circularity is driving the cement and construction industry to explore alternatives to clinker-based binders. Electric arc furnace slag (EAFS), a major steelmaking by-product, is currently underutilised as a binder due to its low intrinsic reactivity. This study provides a comparative evaluation of three distinct valorisation pathways for the same EAFS\u2014use as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM), as a precursor for alkali-activated binders, and as a component in accelerated carbonation systems\u2014thereby highlighting its multifunctional and more ecological binding potential. A comprehensive physicochemical characterisation was conducted, followed by mechanical performance assessment under different curing regimes. When used as an SCM, partial cement replacement resulted in no loss of mechanical performance and a compressive strength increase of up to 8.9% at 10% replacement, demonstrating its suitability for structural applications. Under accelerated carbonation, specimens with 50% replacement of cement and sand achieved compressive strengths of 46.7 MPa, comparable to the non-carbonated reference (47 MPa), indicating full strength recovery despite high substitution levels. Full replacement systems based on alkali activation or carbonation of EAFS achieved moderate compressive strengths (~10 MPa), suitable for non-structural applications, with clear potential for improvement through optimisation of activation and curing conditions. Overall, this work demonstrates that EAFS can be effectively valorised through multiple reaction routes, supporting its role as a versatile and low-carbon resource for sustainable cementitious materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling11020025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T12:00:47Z","timestamp":1770033647000},"page":"25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Comparative Evaluation of Three Valorisation Pathways for Waste Electric Arc Furnace Slag to Improve Its Use as an Eco-Logical Binder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1521-6480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Machini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Itecons\u2014Institute for Research and Technological Development in Construction, Energy Environment and Sustainability, Rua Pedro Hispano, 3030-289 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"CERIS, University of Coimbra, Rua Lu\u00eds Reis Santos, P\u00f3lo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5291-3416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diogo","family":"Sim\u00f5es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Lu\u00eds Reis Santos, P\u00f3lo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9870-2945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Humbert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Centre for Sustainable Construction, CRH, De Klencke 10, 1083 HL Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5996-2023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julieta","family":"Ant\u00f3nio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Itecons\u2014Institute for Research and Technological Development in Construction, Energy Environment and Sustainability, Rua Pedro Hispano, 3030-289 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Lu\u00eds Reis Santos, P\u00f3lo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7084-882X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Itecons\u2014Institute for Research and Technological Development in Construction, Energy Environment and Sustainability, Rua Pedro Hispano, 3030-289 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"CERIS, University of Coimbra, Rua Lu\u00eds Reis Santos, P\u00f3lo II, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, R.L. 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