{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T18:06:16Z","timestamp":1774375576951,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,20]],"date-time":"2025-02-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740009600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"DST, New Delhi, India, under the Water Technology Initiative","award":["DST\/TMD\/EWO\/WTI\/2K19\/EWFH\/2019\/90"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DST\/TMD\/EWO\/WTI\/2K19\/EWFH\/2019\/90"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Resources"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is an environmentally friendly process for transforming biomass into sustainable hydrochar, which is a carbon-rich material with a variety of potential applications. Herein, Tectona grandis seeds (TGs) were transformed into hydrochars using HTC at low temperatures (180\u2013250 \u00b0C) and autogenous pressure. The prepared hydrochars were rich in oxygenated functional groups. The optimized hydrochar, HC-230-4 (prepared at 230 \u00b0C, for 4 h), presented a ratio of H\/C = 0.95 and O\/C = 0.29, an improved degree of coalification, and a high heating value (26.53 MJ kg\u22121), which can replace bituminous coals in the power sector. The prepared hydrochar was further activated in the presence of CO2 to prepare activated carbon (AC). XRD, TGA, FTIR, FE-SEM, and BET techniques were used to characterize raw biomass (TGs), hydrochar, and ACs, to identify the potential applications for the developed materials. BET studies revealed that the hydrochar has limited porosity, with a low surface area (14.41 m2g\u22121) and porous volume. On the other hand, the derived AC (AC-850-5) has a high surface area (729.70 m2g\u22121) and appreciable total and microporous volumes (0.392 cm3g\u22121 and 0.286 cm3g\u22121). The use of biomass, mainly waste biomass, for the production of carbon-rich materials is an effective strategy for managing and valorizing waste biomass resources, reducing environmental pollution, and improving sustainability, being in line with the principles of circularity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/resources14030034","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,20]],"date-time":"2025-02-20T11:03:37Z","timestamp":1740049417000},"page":"34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Transforming Biomass Waste into Hydrochars and Porous Activated Carbon: A Characterization Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0802-5897","authenticated-orcid":false,"family":"Suhas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar 249404, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1450-6689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika","family":"Chaudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Hariom Saraswati P.G. College, Dhanauri, Haridwar 247667, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4714-5672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shubham","family":"Chaudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar 249404, India"}]},{"given":"Shivangi","family":"Chaubey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar 249404, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2085-9157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabel Pestana","family":"da Paix\u00e3o Cansado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED\u2014Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & Change\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Science and Technology, University of \u00c9vora, Rua Rom\u00e3o Ramalho, n\u00ba 59, 7000-671 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7516-8885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Hadi","family":"Dehghani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1416634793, Iran"},{"name":"Center for Solid Waste Research, Institute for Environmental Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1416634793, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2157-0075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inderjeet","family":"Tyagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for DNA Taxonomy, Molecular Systematics Division, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 700053, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0545-9342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rama","family":"Gaur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Energy Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Knowledge Corridor, Raisan, Gandhinagar 382426, India"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2019.104715","article-title":"Recent trends in activated carbon fibers production from various precursors and applications\u2014A comparative review","volume":"145","author":"Hassan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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