{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T05:08:46Z","timestamp":1776229726376,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]],"date-time":"2021-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/50014\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50014\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The constant advances in agricultural robotics aim to overcome the challenges imposed by population growth, accelerated urbanization, high competitiveness of high-quality products, environmental preservation and a lack of qualified labor. In this sense, this review paper surveys the main existing applications of agricultural robotic systems for the execution of land preparation before planting, sowing, planting, plant treatment, harvesting, yield estimation and phenotyping. In general, all robots were evaluated according to the following criteria: its locomotion system, what is the final application, if it has sensors, robotic arm and\/or computer vision algorithm, what is its development stage and which country and continent they belong. After evaluating all similar characteristics, to expose the research trends, common pitfalls and the characteristics that hinder commercial development, and discover which countries are investing into Research and Development (R&amp;D) in these technologies for the future, four major areas that need future research work for enhancing the state of the art in smart agriculture were highlighted: locomotion systems, sensors, computer vision algorithms and communication technologies. The results of this research suggest that the investment in agricultural robotic systems allows to achieve short\u2014harvest monitoring\u2014and long-term objectives\u2014yield estimation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics10020052","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]],"date-time":"2021-03-24T21:36:51Z","timestamp":1616621811000},"page":"52","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":325,"title":["Advances in Agriculture Robotics: A State-of-the-Art Review and Challenges Ahead"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1715-3340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luiz F. P.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Robotics in Industry and Intelligent Systems (CRIIS), INESC TEC, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8573-3147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio P.","family":"Moreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Robotics in Industry and Intelligent Systems (CRIIS), INESC TEC, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering; University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0593-2865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel F.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Robotics in Industry and Intelligent Systems (CRIIS), INESC TEC, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249\u2013015 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations (2021, March 08). World Population Projected to Reach 9.8 Billion in 2050. Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/development\/desa\/en\/news\/population\/world-population-prospects-2017.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Zhang, X., and Davidson, E.A. (2021, March 01). Improving Nitrogen and Water Management in Crop Production on a National Scale. Available online: https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018AGUFM.B22B..01Z\/abstract."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayaz, M., Ammad-Uddin, M., Sharif, Z., Mansour, A., and Aggoune, E.M. (2019). Internet of Things (IoT) Based Smart Agriculture: Toward Making the Fields Talk. IEEE Access, 1.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2932609"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"United Nations (2018). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision. Econ. Soc. Aff., 1, 1\u20132."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Dabipi, I.K., and Brown, W.L. (2018). Internet of Things Applications for Agriculture, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chapter 18.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119456735.ch18"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021, March 01). WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available online: https:\/\/covid19.who.int\/."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"FAO (2020). Keeping food and agricultural systems alive: Analyses and solutions in response to COVID-19. FAO, 64."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"CFBF (2021, March 01). Still Searching for Solutions: Adapting to Farm Worker Scarcity Survey 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.cfbf.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/LaborScarcity.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-005-0681-8","article-title":"Future Directions of Precision Agriculture","volume":"6","author":"McBratney","year":"2005","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2018.12.0779","article-title":"Setting the Record Straight on Precision Agriculture Adoption","volume":"111","author":"Erickson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"88","article-title":"A Brief Overview and Systematic Approch for Using Agricultural Robot in Developing Countries","volume":"3","author":"Tarannum","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mod. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.11.140","article-title":"Precision viticulture and advanced analytics. A short review","volume":"279","author":"Santesteban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012058","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1693\/1\/012058","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture","volume":"1693","author":"Zha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3758","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2844296","article-title":"An Overview of Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Analytics in Agriculture: Benefits and Challenges","volume":"5","author":"Elijah","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Things J."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Oliveira, L.F.P., Silva, M.F., and Moreira, A.P. (2020, January 24\u201326). Agricultural Robotics: A State of the Art Survey. Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines (CLAWAR 2020), Moscow, Russian."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fountas, S., Mylonas, N., Malounas, I., Rodias, E., Hellmann Santos, C., and Pekkeriet, E. (2020). Agricultural Robotics for Field Operations. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092672"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1","article-title":"Research and development in agricultural robotics: A perspective of digital farming","volume":"11","author":"Shamshiri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bac, C.W., Henten, E.J.v., Hemming, J., and Edan, Y. (2014). Harvesting Robots for High-value Crops: State-of-the-art Review and Challenges Ahead. J. Field Robot., 31.","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21525"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49248","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2868848","article-title":"Review of Wheeled Mobile Robots\u2019 Navigation Problems and Application Prospects in Agriculture","volume":"6","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/JRA.1987.1087074","article-title":"Robotics and intelligent machines in agriculture","volume":"3","author":"Sistler","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE J. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Raussendorf (2021, March 01). Fruit Robot. Available online: https:\/\/www.raussendorf.de\/en\/fruit-robot.html."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siciliano, B., and Khatib, O. (2016). Springer Handbook of Robotics, Springer Publishing Company. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-32552-1"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, N., Medlock, G., Graves, S., and Anwar, S. (2018). GPS Guided Autonomous Navigation of a Small Agricultural Robot with Automated Fertilizing System, SAE International. SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/2018-01-0031"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Precision Makers (2021, March 01). GREENBOT. Available online: https:\/\/www.precisionmakers.com\/en\/greenbot-2\/."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"DJI (2021, March 08). AGRAS MG-1P SERIES: Innovative Insights. Increased Efficiency., Available online: https:\/\/www.dji.com\/br\/mg-1p."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nawaz, M., Bourri\u00e9, G., and Trolard, F. (2012). Soil compaction impact and modelling: A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev., 33.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13593-011-0071-8"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"221","article-title":"Development of seeding production robot and automated transplanter system","volume":"30","author":"Sakaue","year":"1996","journal-title":"Jpn. Agric. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"Study and Experiment on a Wheat Precision Seeding Robot","volume":"1","author":"Haibo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Robot."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Sukkarieh, S. (2017, January 7\u20138). Mobile on-farm digital technology for smallholder farmers. Proceedings of the 2017 Crawford Fund Annual Conference on Transforming Lives and Livelihoods: The Digital Revolution in Agriculture, Canberra, Australia."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, M.U., Ullah, M., and Iqbal, J. (2016, January 20\u201322). Towards autonomy in agriculture: Design and prototyping of a robotic vehicle with seed selector. Proceedings of the 2016 2nd International Conference on Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (ICRAI), Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRAI.2016.7791225"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivasan, N., Prabhu, P., Smruthi, S.S., Sivaraman, N.V., Gladwin, S.J., Rajavel, R., and Natarajan, A.R. (2016, January 21\u201323). Design of an autonomous seed planting robot. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Region 10 Humanitarian Technology Conference (R10-HTC), Agra, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/R10-HTC.2016.7906789"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"FAO (2021, February 15). Keeping Plant Pests and Diseases at Bay: Experts Focus on Global Measures. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/news\/story\/en\/item\/280489\/icode\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Sinden, J.A., and for Australian Weed Management (Australia), C.R.C. (2004). The Economic Impact of Weeds in Australia: Report to the CRC for Australian Weed Management, CRC Weed Management."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009977903204","article-title":"Robotic Weed Control System for Tomatoes","volume":"1","author":"Lee","year":"1999","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lee, W.S., and Slaughter, D.C. (1998, January 12\u201316). Plant recognition using hardware-based neural network. Proceedings of the 1998 ASAE Annual International Meeting, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2016.2518214","article-title":"Robotic Disease Detection in Greenhouses: Combined Detection of Powdery Mildew and Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus","volume":"1","author":"Schor","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pilli, S.K., Nallathambi, B., George, S.J., and Diwanji, V. (2015, January 26\u201327). eAGROBOT\u2014A robot for early crop disease detection using image processing. Proceedings of the 2015 2nd International Conference on Electronics and Communication Systems (ICECS), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECS.2015.7124873"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21897","article-title":"Automated crop plant detection based on the fusion of color and depth images for robotic weed control","volume":"37","author":"Gai","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1","article-title":"HortiBot: A System Design of a Robotic Tool Carrier for High-tech Plant Nursing","volume":"IX","author":"Jorgensen","year":"2006","journal-title":"CIGR J. Sci. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1184","article-title":"Efficacy of Mechanical Weeding Tools: A Study Into Alternative Weed Management Strategies Enabled by Robotics","volume":"3","author":"McCool","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Naio Tecnologies (2021, February 20). OZ-Weeding, Transportation and Harvest Assistance Robot. Available online: https:\/\/www.naio-technologies.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/brochure-OZ-ENGLISH-HD.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Naio Tecnologies (2021, February 20). Dino-Autonomous Mechanical Weeding Robot. Available online: https:\/\/www.naio-technologies.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/brochure-DINO-ENGLISH-HD.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Naio Tecnologies (2021, February 20). Ted\u2014Multifunctional Straddling Vineyard Robot. Available online: https:\/\/www.naio-technologies.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/brochure-TED-ENGLISH-3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"VITIROVER Solutions (2021, February 23). VITIROVER\u2014A Revolution in Soil Grassing Management. Available online: https:\/\/www.vitirover.fr\/en-home."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Franklin Robotics (2021, February 23). Meet Tertill\u2014A Better Way to Weed. Available online: https:\/\/tertill.com\/."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2015.02.014","article-title":"Morphology-based guidance line extraction for an autonomous weeding robot in paddy fields","volume":"113","author":"Choi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.20965\/jrm.2008.p0228","article-title":"Verification of a Weeding Robot \u201cAIGAMO-ROBOT\u201d for Paddy Fields","volume":"20","author":"Mitsui","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Robot. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.20965\/jrm.2018.p0198","article-title":"Effect for a Paddy Weeding Robot in Wet Rice Culture","volume":"30","author":"Sori","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Robot. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Uchida, T.F., and Yamano, T. (2019, January 26\u201328). Development of a remoto control type weeding machine with stirring chains for a paddy field. Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and Support Technologies for Mobile Machines (CLAWAR 2019), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21721","article-title":"Design and development of a semi-autonomous agricultural vineyard sprayer: Human\u2013robot interaction aspects","volume":"34","author":"Adamides","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2017.2656143","article-title":"Automatic Adjustable Spraying Device for Site-Specific Agricultural Application","volume":"15","author":"Berenstein","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1108\/IR-05-2016-0142","article-title":"Robots poised to revolutionise agriculture","volume":"43","author":"Bogue","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ind. Robot Int. J."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Underwood, J.P., Calleija, M., Taylor, Z., Hung, C., Nieto, J.M.G., Fitch, R., and Sukkarieh, S. (2015, January 26\u201330). Real-time target detection and steerable spray for vegetable crops. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21938","article-title":"Robotic weed control using automated weed and crop classification","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2019.12.513","article-title":"Energy Aware Mission Planning for WMRs on Uneven Terrains","volume":"52","author":"Wallace","year":"2019","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Turner, D., Lucieer, A., and Watson, C. (2021, February 26). Development of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Hyper-Resolution Vineyard Mapping Based on Visible, Multispectral and Thermal Imagery. The GEOSS Era: Towards Operational Environmental Monitoring. Available online: https:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/2011\/isrse-34\/211104015Final00547.pdf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105100","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2932119","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Agriculture: A Review of Perspective of Platform, Control, and Applications","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2014.02.009","article-title":"Multi-temporal mapping of the vegetation fraction in early-season wheat fields using images from UAV","volume":"103","author":"Castro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2010.11.010","article-title":"Development of a low-cost agricultural remote sensing system based on an autonomous unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)","volume":"108","author":"Xiang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.4081\/jae.2019.853","article-title":"Testing a multi-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle for spray application in high slope terraced vineyard","volume":"50","author":"Sarri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meivel, S., Dinakaran, K., Gandhiraj, N., and Srinivasan, M. (2016, January 22\u201323). Remote sensing for UREA Spraying Agricultural (UAV) system. Proceedings of the 2016 3rd International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICACCS.2016.7586367"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21861","article-title":"Autonomous pollination of individual kiwifruit flowers: Toward a robotic kiwifruit pollinator","volume":"37","author":"Williams","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verbiest, R., Ruysen, K., Vanwalleghem, T., Demeester, E., and Kellens, K. (2020). Automation and robotics in the cultivation of pome fruit: Where do we stand today?. J. Field Robot.","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.22000"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2014.02.013","article-title":"Identification of pruning branches in tall spindle apple trees for automated pruning","volume":"103","author":"Karkee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21680","article-title":"A Robot System for Pruning Grape Vines","volume":"34","author":"Botterill","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majeed, Y., Karkee, M., Zhang, Q., Fu, L., and Whiting, M.D. (2021). Development and performance evaluation of a machine vision system and an integrated prototype for automated green shoot thinning in vineyards. J. Field Robot.","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.22013"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.1005","article-title":"Thorvald II\u2014A Modular and Re-configurable Agricultural Robot","volume":"50","author":"Grimstad","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Clearpath Robotics (2021, February 25). Boldy Go Where No Robot Has Gone before. Available online: https:\/\/clearpathrobotics.com\/."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Avrora Robotics (2021, March 02). Agrobot Project\u2014Automation of Agriculture. Available online: https:\/\/avrora-robotics.com\/en\/projects\/agrobot\/."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.6090\/jarq.48.307","article-title":"Field Operation of a Movable Strawberry-harvesting Robot using a Travel Platform","volume":"48","author":"Hayashi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Jpn. Agric. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"ABARES (2021, March 02). Australian Vegetable Growing Farms: An Economic Survey, 2012-13 and 2013-14, Available online: https:\/\/data.gov.au\/dataset\/ds-dga-a00deb73-3fd1-4ae7-bc01-be5f37cffeee\/details."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"61","article-title":"A new type of facility strawberry stereoscopic cultivation mode","volume":"24","author":"Jie","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. China Agric. Univ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1108\/01439919810232440","article-title":"Design and implementation of an aided fruit-harvesting robot (Agribot)","volume":"25","author":"Ceres","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ind. Robot Int. J."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/100.556479","article-title":"The autonomous mobile robot AURORA for greenhouse operation","volume":"3","author":"Mandow","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Agrobot (2021, March 02). The First Pre-Commercial Robotic Harvesters for Gently Harvest Strawberries. Available online: https:\/\/www.agrobot.com\/e-series."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"141","article-title":"Fruit picking robots: Has their time come?","volume":"47","author":"Robert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ind. Robot. Int. J. Robot. Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2017.2735861","article-title":"Robotic Green Asparagus Selective Harvesting","volume":"22","author":"Leu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21888","article-title":"A field-tested robotic harvesting system for iceberg lettuce","volume":"37","author":"Birrell","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147642","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2946369","article-title":"Fruit Localization and Environment Perception for Strawberry Harvesting Robots","volume":"7","author":"Ge","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121889","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3006919","article-title":"Robotic Aubergine Harvesting Using Dual-Arm Manipulation","volume":"8","author":"Navas","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21889","article-title":"An autonomous strawberry-harvesting robot: Design, development, integration, and field evaluation","volume":"37","author":"Xiong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62151","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2984556","article-title":"Visual Perception and Modeling for Autonomous Apple Harvesting","volume":"8","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116556","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3003034","article-title":"Real-Time Visual Localization of the Picking Points for a Ridge-Planting Strawberry Harvesting Robot","volume":"8","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21973","article-title":"Performance improvements of a sweet pepper harvesting robot in protected cropping environments","volume":"37","author":"Lehnert","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21937","article-title":"Development of a sweet pepper harvesting robot","volume":"37","author":"Arad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2017.2655622","article-title":"Autonomous Sweet Pepper Harvesting for Protected Cropping Systems","volume":"2","author":"Lehnert","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"288","article-title":"Amaran: An Unmanned Robotic Coconut Tree Climber and Harvester","volume":"26","author":"Megalingam","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-6670(17)42112-4","article-title":"Vision Intelligence for an Agricultural Mobile Robot Using a Neural Network","volume":"31","author":"Noguchi","year":"1998","journal-title":"IFAC Proc. Vol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-6670(17)33122-1","article-title":"Multi-Spectrum Image Sensor for Detecting Crop Status by Robot Tractor","volume":"34","author":"Noguchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"IFAC Proc. Vol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21699","article-title":"Image Segmentation for Fruit Detection and Yield Estimation in Apple Orchards","volume":"34","author":"Bargoti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Lopes, C., Gra\u00e7a, J., Sastre, J., Reyes, M., Guzman, R., Braga, R., Monteiro, A., and Pinto, P. (2016, January 10\u201314). Vineyard Yield Estimation by Vinbot Robot\u2014Preliminary Results with the White Variety Viosinho. Proceedings of the 11th International Terroir Congress, McMinnville, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2021, March 03). VineRobot. Available online: http:\/\/www.vinerobot.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Abrah\u00e3o, G.Q.S., Megda, P.T., Guerrero, H.B., and Becker, M. (2011, January 24\u201328). AgriBOT project: Comparison between the D* and focussed D* navigation algorithms. Proceedings of the International Congress of Mechanical Engineering\u2014COBEM, Natal, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Lulio, L.C. (2016). Fus\u00e3o Sensorial por Classifica\u00e7\u00e3O Cognitiva Ponderada no Mapeamento de Cenas Naturais Agr\u00edColas para An\u00e1Lise Quali-Quantitativa em Citricultura. [Ph.D. Thesis, Escola de Engenharia de S\u00e3o Carlos]."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Lugli, L., Tronco, M., and Porto, V. (2011). JSEG Algorithm and Statistical ANN Image Segmentation Techniques for Natural Scenes. Image Segmentation, IntechOpen. Chapter 18."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-016-0340-5","article-title":"Towards a Reliable Robot for Steep Slope Vineyards Monitoring","volume":"83","author":"Santos","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Santos, F.B.N., Sobreira, H.M.P., Campos, D.F.B., Santos, R.M.P.M., Moreira, A.P.G.M., and Contente, O.M.S. (2015, January 8\u201310). Towards a Reliable Monitoring Robot for Mountain Vineyards. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Autonomous Robot Systems and Competitions, Vila Real, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reis, R., Mendes, J., Santos, F.N., Morais, R., Ferraz, N., Santos, L., and Sousa, A. (2018, January 25\u201327). Redundant robot localization system based in wireless sensor network. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Autonomous Robot Systems and Competitions (ICARSC), Torres Vedras, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICARSC.2018.8374176"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2008.01.016","article-title":"Localization of CO2 source by a hexapod robot equipped with an anemoscope and a gas sensor","volume":"63","author":"Iida","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21852","article-title":"Under canopy light detection and ranging-based autonomous navigation","volume":"36","author":"Higuti","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lowe, T., Moghadam, P., Edwards, E., and Williams, J. (2021). Canopy density estimation in perennial horticulture crops using 3D spinning lidar SLAM. J. Field Robot.","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.22006"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shafiekhani, A., Kadam, S., Fritschi, F.B., and DeSouza, G.N. (2017). Vinobot and Vinoculer: Two Robotic Platforms for High-Throughput Field Phenotyping. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17010214"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shafiekhani, A., Fritschi, F., and Desouza, G. (2018, January 15\u201319). Vinobot and Vinoculer: From Real to Simulated Platforms. Proceedings of the SPIE Commercial + Scientific Sensing and Imaging, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2316341"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy4020279","article-title":"Pheno-Copter: A Low-Altitude, Autonomous Remote-Sensing Robotic Helicopter for High-Throughput Field-Based Phenotyping","volume":"4","author":"Chapman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agronomy"},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"EcoRobotix (2021, March 21). ARA Swuitch to Smart Scouting. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecorobotix.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/ECOX_FlyerPres19-EN-3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, L.C., Aguiar, A.S., Santos, F.N., Valente, A., and Petry, M. (2020). Occupancy Grid and Topological Maps Extraction from Satellite Images for Path Planning in Agricultural Robots. Robotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics9040077"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguiar, A.S., dos Santos, F.N., Cunha, J.B., Sobreira, H., and Sousa, A.J. (2020). Localization and Mapping for Robots in Agriculture and Forestry: A Survey. Robotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics9040097"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iqbal, J., Xu, R., Sun, S., and Li, C. (2020). Simulation of an Autonomous Mobile Robot for LiDAR-Based In-Field Phenotyping and Navigation. Robotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics9020046"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"FAO (2019). World Food and Agriculture\u2014Statistical pocketbook 2019. FAO, 1, 254."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1109\/TLA.2018.8327389","article-title":"Modeling, Simulation and Analysis of Locomotion Patterns for Hexapod Robots","volume":"16","author":"Oliveira","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Latin Am. Trans."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1177\/1077546311403180","article-title":"A literature review on the optimization of legged robots","volume":"18","author":"Silva","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vib. Control"},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Fankhauser, P. (2021, March 07). ANYmal C. Available online: https:\/\/www.anybotics.com\/anymal-legged-robot\/."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"(2021, March 07). Unitree Robotics. Available online: https:\/\/www.unitree.com\/."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"Weilan (2021, March 07). AlphaDog. Available online: http:\/\/www.weilan.com\/."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Oliveira, L.F.P., Manera, L.T., and Luz, P.D.G. (2020). Development of a Smart Traffic Light Control System with Real-Time Monitoring. IEEE Int. Things J., 1."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, L.F.P., Manera, L.T., and Luz, P.D.G. (2019, January 22\u201325). Smart Traffic Light Controller System. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Internet of Things: Systems, Management and Security (IOTSMS), Granada, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IOTSMS48152.2019.8939239"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neumann, G.B., Almeida, V.P., and Endler, M. (2018, January 25\u201328). Smart Forests: Fire detection service. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Natal, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC.2018.8538719"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2019.11.051","article-title":"Deployment and integration of smart sensors with IoT devices detecting fire disasters in huge forest environment","volume":"150","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."}],"container-title":["Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/10\/2\/52\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:40:23Z","timestamp":1760161223000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/10\/2\/52"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["robotics10020052"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/robotics10020052","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-6581"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-6581","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]}}}