{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:42:13Z","timestamp":1760218933313,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,4]],"date-time":"2014-11-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1415059200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>MEMS Inertial Measurement Units are available at low cost and can replace expensive units in mobile mapping platforms which need direct georeferencing. This is done through the integration with GNSS measurements in order to achieve a continuous positioning solution and to obtain orientation angles. This paper presents the results of the assessment of the accuracy of a system that integrates GNSS and a MEMS IMU in a terrestrial platform. We describe the methodology used and the tests realized where the accuracy of the positions and orientation parameters were assessed using an independent photogrammetric technique employing cameras that integrate the mobile mapping system developed by the authors. Results for the accuracy of attitude angles and coordinates show that accuracies better than a decimeter in positions, and under a degree in angles, can be achieved even considering that the terrestrial platform is operating in less than favorable environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s141120866","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,4]],"date-time":"2014-11-04T09:41:15Z","timestamp":1415094075000},"page":"20866-20881","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Accuracy Assessment of the Integration of GNSS and a MEMS IMU in a Terrestrial Platform"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Sergio","family":"Madeira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real 5000-801, Portugal; INESC-TEC - Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Wenlin","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences Environment and Spatial Planning, Faculty of Science,  University of Porto, Rua Campo Alegre 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Lu\u00edsa","family":"Bastos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences Environment and Spatial Planning, Faculty of Science,  University of Porto, Rua Campo Alegre 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9212-4649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences Environment and Spatial Planning, Faculty of Science,  University of Porto, Rua Campo Alegre 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2935","DOI":"10.3390\/s120302935","article-title":"Sensor Integration in a Low Cost Land Mobile Mapping System","volume":"12","author":"Madeira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Schwarz, K.P., and Sheimy, N. (2007). Advances in Mobile Mapping Technology, Taylor & Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruen, A., and Huang, T.S. (2001). Calibration and Orientation of Cameras in Computer Vision, Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-04567-1"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2009.06.015","article-title":"Photogrammetric mapping and measuring application using MATLAB","volume":"36","author":"Madeira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1179\/003962608X325448","article-title":"Determining Rail Track Axis Geometry Using Satellite and Terrestrial Geodetic Data","volume":"40","author":"Gikas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"516","article-title":"Automatic Road Vector Extraction for Mobile Mapping Systems","volume":"XXXVII-B3b","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madeira, S., Gon\u00e7alves, J., and Bastos, L. (2013). Accurate DTM generation in sand beaches using Mobile Mapping. J. Coast. Conserv.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11852-013-0256-1"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"587","article-title":"Mapping Topography Changes and Elevation Accuracies Using a Mobile Laser Scanner","volume":"11","author":"Vaaja","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B3-87-2012","article-title":"Evaluation model for pavement surface distress on 3D point clouds from mobile mapping system","volume":"XXXIX-B3","author":"Aoki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Deurloo, R.A. (2011). Development of a Kalman Filter Integrating System and Measurement Models for a Low-cost Strapdown Airborne Gravimetry System. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Porto]."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Bastos, L., Yan, W., Magalh\u00e3es, A., Ayres-Sampaio, D., and Deurloo, R. (2013, January 4\u20136). Assessment the performance of low cost IMUs for strapdown airborne gravimetry using UAVs. Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Ayres-Sampaio, D., Gon\u00e7alves, J.A., Magalh\u00e3es, A., and Bastos, L. (2014, January 29\u201331). Evaluating the performance of MEMS-based IMUs for direct georeferencing. Evora, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grewal, M., Weill, L., and Andrews, A. (2007). Global Positioning Systems, Inertial Navigation and Integration, J. Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470099720"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1667","article-title":"An integrated INS\/GPS Approach to the Georeferencing of Remotely Sensed Data","volume":"59","author":"Schwarz","year":"1993","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borgese, G., Rizzo, L., Artese, G., and Pace, C. (2011, January 14\u201317). Compact Wireless GPS\/inertial System. Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/FBW.2011.5965567"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"877","article-title":"Calibration of a low cost MEMS INS sensor for an integrated navigation system","volume":"XXXVII-B5","author":"Artese","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"El-Sheimy, N. (1996). The Development of VISAT\u2014A Mobile Survey System For GIS Applications. [PhD Thesis, The University of Calgary]."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., and Wasle, E. (2008). GNSS\u2014Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more, Springer-Verlag."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Britting, K.R. (1972). Inertial Navigation System Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Madeira, S., Gon\u00e7alves, J., and Bastos, L. (2009, January 21\u201324). Fast camera calibration for low cost mobile mapping. Presidente Prudente, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jekeli, C. (2001). Inertial Navigation Systems with Geodetic Applications, Walter de Gruyter.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110800234"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3662552","article-title":"A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction Problems","volume":"82","author":"Kalman","year":"1960","journal-title":"Trans. ASME J. Basic Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2002.1008998","article-title":"Direct Kalman Filtering Approach for GPS\/INS Integration","volume":"38","author":"Moore","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Yaakov, B.S., Li, X.R., and Thiagalingam, K. (2001). Estimation with Applications to Tracking and Navigation, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"11","article-title":"A Rigorous and Integrated Approach to Hydrophone and Source Positioning during Multi-Streamer Offshore Seismic Exploration","volume":"77","author":"Gikas","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hydrogr. J."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Gelb, A. (1974). Applied Optimal Estimation, M.I.T. Press."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Wolf, P.R., Dewitt, B.A., and Wilkinson, B. (2000). Elements of Photogrammetry, with Applications in GIS, McGraw-Hill. [3rd ed.]."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/11\/20866\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:08:52Z","timestamp":1760216932000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/11\/20866"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,4]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s141120866"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s141120866","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,4]]}}}