{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:21:49Z","timestamp":1760242909327,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,23]],"date-time":"2016-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1477180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Video surveillance is needed to control many activities performed in underwater environments. The use of wired media can be a problem since the material specially designed for underwater environments is very expensive. In order to transmit the images and videos wirelessly under water, three main technologies can be used: acoustic waves, which do not provide high bandwidth, optical signals, although the effect of light dispersion in water severely penalizes the transmitted signals and therefore, despite offering high transfer rates, the maximum distance is very small, and electromagnetic (EM) waves, which can provide enough bandwidth for video delivery. In the cases where the distance between transmitter and receiver is short, the use of EM waves would be an interesting option since they provide high enough data transfer rates to transmit videos with high resolution. This paper presents a practical study of the behavior of EM waves at 2.4 GHz in freshwater underwater environments. First, we discuss the minimum requirements of a network to allow video delivery. From these results, we measure the maximum distance between nodes and the round trip time (RTT) value depending on several parameters such as data transfer rate, signal modulations, working frequency, and water temperature. The results are statistically analyzed to determine their relation. Finally, the EM waves\u2019 behavior is modeled by a set of equations. The results show that there are some combinations of working frequency, modulation, transfer rate and temperature that offer better results than others. Our work shows that short communication distances with high data transfer rates is feasible.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,24]],"date-time":"2016-10-24T10:46:39Z","timestamp":1477305999000},"page":"1769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Underwater Communications for Video Surveillance Systems at 2.4 GHz"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9556-9088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Sendra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Signal Theory, Telematics and Communications Department (TSTC), Universidad de Granada, C\/Periodista Daniel Saucedo Aranda, s\/n., Granada 18071, Spain"},{"name":"Integrated Management Coastal Research Institute, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Valencia, C\/Paranimf, n\u00b0 1, Grao de Gandia 46730, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0862-0533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaime","family":"Lloret","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Management Coastal Research Institute, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Valencia, C\/Paranimf, n\u00b0 1, Grao de Gandia 46730, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3688-7235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose","family":"Jimenez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Management Coastal Research Institute, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Valencia, C\/Paranimf, n\u00b0 1, Grao de Gandia 46730, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8657-3800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joel","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Telecommunications (Inatel), Santa Rita do Sapuca\u00ed 37540-000, Brazil"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Universidade da Beira Interior, Rua Marqu\u00eas d'\u00c1vila e Bolama, Covilh\u00e3 6201-001, Portugal"},{"name":"ITMO University, 49 Kronverksky Pr., St. Petersburg 197101, Russia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"301","article-title":"Energy-Efficient Communication Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"30","author":"Bagci","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Sens. Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"103","article-title":"Classification of Energy-Efficient Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"17","author":"Eslaminejad","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896832","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/896832","article-title":"Underwater Sensor Network Applications: A Comprehensive Survey","volume":"2015","author":"Felemban","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1145\/1121776.1121779","article-title":"Challenges for efficient communication in underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"1","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2004","journal-title":"ACM Sigbed Rev."},{"unstructured":"Garcia, M., Sendra, S., Atenas, M., and Lloret, J. (2011). Mobile Ad hoc Networks: Current Status and Future Trends, CRC Press.","key":"ref_5"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1002\/wcm.654","article-title":"Prospects and problems of wireless communications for underwater sensor networks","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"688","article-title":"Underwater acoustic communication, Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering","volume":"36","author":"Stojanovic","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biomed. Instrum. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2010.5673085","article-title":"Re-evaluation of RF electromagnetic communication in underwater sensor networks","volume":"48","author":"Che","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"unstructured":"Chakraborty, U., Tewary, T., and Chatterjee, R.P. (2009, January 14\u201316). Exploiting the loss-frequency relationship using RF communication in underwater communication networks. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computers and Devices for Communication, CODEC 2009, Kolkata, India.","key":"ref_9"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01008897","article-title":"A model for the complex permittivity of water at frequencies below 1 THz","volume":"12","author":"Liebe","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Infrared Millimeter Waves."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3441","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2006.884290","article-title":"Frequency, Temperature and Salinity Variation of the Permittivity of Seawater","volume":"54","author":"Somaraju","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McEachen, J.C., and Casias, J. (2008, January 7\u201310). Performance of a wireless unattended sensor network in a freshwater environment. Proceedings of the IEEE 41st Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 2008, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","key":"ref_12","DOI":"10.1109\/HICSS.2008.347"},{"unstructured":"IEEE Std 802.11 (2007) IEEE Standard for Information Technology\u2014Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems\u2014Local and Metropolitan Area Networks\u2014Specific Requirements\u2014Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications.","key":"ref_13"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teixeira, F., Freitas, P., Pessoa, L., Campos, R., and Ricardo, M. (2014, January 12\u201314). Evaluation of IEEE 802.11 Underwater Networks Operating at 700 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. Proceedings of the 9th ACM International Conference on Underwater Networks & Systems (WUWNet\u201914), Rome, Italy.","key":"ref_14","DOI":"10.1145\/2671490.2674571"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4237","DOI":"10.3390\/s120404237","article-title":"Underwater wireless sensor communications in the 2.4 Ghz ISM frequency band","volume":"12","author":"Lloret","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1794","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2013.072313.131214","article-title":"Underwater Wireless Communications in Freshwater at 2.4 GHz","volume":"17","author":"Sendra","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atenas, M., Sendra, S., Garcia, M., and Lloret, J. (2010, January 6\u201310). IPTV performance in IEEE 802.11n WLANs. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE GLOBECOM Workshops (GC Wkshps), Miami, FL, USA.","key":"ref_17","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2010.5700461"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30810","DOI":"10.3390\/s151229831","article-title":"Calibration Techniques for Accurate Measurements by Underwater Camera Systems","volume":"15","author":"Shortis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31723","DOI":"10.3390\/s151229882","article-title":"Subjective Quality Assessment of Underwater Video for Scientific Applications","volume":"15","author":"Poncela","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Che, X., Wells, I., Kear, P., Dickers, G., Gong, X., and Rhodes, M. (2009, January 22\u201326). A Static Multi-Hop Underwater Wireless Sensor Network Using RF Electromagnetic Communications. Proceedings of the 29th IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, Montreal, QC, Canada.","key":"ref_20","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCSW.2009.36"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaw, A., Wylie, S.R., and Toal, D. (2006, January 10\u201315). Experimental Investigations of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Seawater. Proceedings of the 36th European Microwave Conference, Manchester, UK.","key":"ref_21","DOI":"10.1109\/EUMC.2006.281456"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joe, J., and Toh, S.H. (2007, January 18\u201321). Digital Underwater Communication Using Electric Current Method. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2007-Europe, Melbourne, FL, USA.","key":"ref_22","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSE.2007.4302404"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012029","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/178\/1\/012029","article-title":"Underwater wireless communication system","volume":"178","author":"Goh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cella, U.M., Johnstone, R., and Shuley, N. (2009, January 3). Electromagnetic wave wireless communication in shallow water coastal environment: theoretical analysis and experimental results. Proceedings of the Fourth ACM International Workshop on Under Water Networks (WUWNet), Berkeley, CA, USA.","key":"ref_24","DOI":"10.1145\/1654130.1654139"},{"unstructured":"Features of SJCAM5000 WiFi Action Camera. Available online: https:\/\/sjcamhd.com\/sjcam-sj5000-wifi\/.","key":"ref_25"},{"unstructured":"MN34110PA Data Sheet. Available online: http:\/\/www.semicon.panasonic.co.jp\/ds4\/MN34110PA_E.pdf.","key":"ref_26"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19331","DOI":"10.3390\/s150819331","article-title":"A Distributed Data-Gathering Protocol Using AUV in Underwater Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"unstructured":"Wireshark Network Analyzer. Available online: http:\/\/wireshark.org.","key":"ref_28"},{"unstructured":"NetMeter. Available online: http:\/\/www.hootech.com\/NetMeter\/.","key":"ref_29"},{"unstructured":"Sendra, S., Lamparero, J.V., Lloret, J., and Ardid, M. (2012). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer Verlag.","key":"ref_30"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8722","DOI":"10.3390\/s91108722","article-title":"A Wireless Sensor Network Deployment for Rural and Forest Fire Detection and Verification","volume":"9","author":"Lloret","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensor"},{"unstructured":"Wang, Z., Zeitoun, A., and Jamin, S. (2013, January 6\u20138). Challenges and Lessons Learned in Measuring Path RTT for Proximity-Based Applications. Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Passive and Active Measurement 2003, San Diego, CA, USA.","key":"ref_32"},{"unstructured":"Miller, J., and Haden, P. Statistical Analysis with the General Linear Model. Available online: http:\/\/www.otago.ac.nz\/psychology\/otago039309.pdf.","key":"ref_33"},{"unstructured":"Eureqa Formulize web site. Available online: http:\/\/formulize.nutonian.com.","key":"ref_34"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"21","article-title":"ANTARES: An Underwater Network of Sensors for Neutrino Astronomy and Deep-Sea Research","volume":"8","author":"Ardid","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Sens. Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2010.0654","article-title":"Monitoring and Control Sensor System for Fish Feeding in Marine Fish Farms","volume":"5","author":"Garcia","year":"2011","journal-title":"IET Commun."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/10\/1769\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:33:46Z","timestamp":1760211226000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/10\/1769"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,23]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s16101769"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16101769","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,23]]}}}