{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T03:09:56Z","timestamp":1768014596121,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]],"date-time":"2020-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580428800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["99999.008512\/2014-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["99999.008512\/2014-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/CEC\/00408\/2013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/CEC\/00408\/2013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"SHCDCiber project","award":["n\/a"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\/a"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The benefits of using Networked Control Systems (NCS) in the growing Industry 4.0 arenumerous, including better management and operational capabilities, as well as costs reduction.However, despite these benefits, the use of NCSs can also expose physical plants to new threatsoriginated in the cyber domain\u2014such as data injection attacks in NCS links through which sensorsand controllers transmit signals. In this sense, this work proposes a link monitoring strategy toidentify linear time-invariant (LTI) functions executed during controlled data injection attacksby a Man-in-the-Middle hosted in an NCS link. The countermeasure is based on a bioinspiredmetaheuristic, called Backtracking Search Optimization Algorithm (BSA), and uses white Gaussiannoise to excite the attack function. To increase the accuracy of this countermeasure, it is proposedthe Noise Impulse Integration (NII) technique, which is developed using the radar pulse integrationtechnique as inspiration. The results demonstrate that the proposed countermeasure is able toaccurately identify LTI attack functions, here executed to impair measurements transmitted bythe plant sensor, without interfering with the NCS behavior when the system is in its normaloperation. Moreover, the results indicate that the NII technique can increase the accuracy of the attackidentification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030792","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]],"date-time":"2020-01-31T11:55:56Z","timestamp":1580471756000},"page":"792","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Identification of Data Injection Attacks in Networked Control Systems Using Noise Impulse Integration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6311-9672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alan","family":"Oliveira de S\u00e1","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Admiral Wandenkolk Instruction Center, Brazilian Navy, Rio de Janeiro RJ 20180-003, Brazil"},{"name":"Institute of Mathematics\/NCE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro RJ 21945-970, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5522-5739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Casimiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Raphael C. S.","family":"Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology, Xer\u00e9m RJ 25250-020, Brazil"},{"name":"Institute of Computing, Fluminense Federal University, Niter\u00f3i RJ 24210-310, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Luiz F. R.","family":"da C. Carmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mathematics\/NCE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro RJ 21945-970, Brazil"},{"name":"Department of Informatics, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-014-0334-4","article-title":"Industry 4.0","volume":"6","author":"Lasi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bus. Inf. Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jazdi, N. (2014, January 22\u201324). Cyber physical systems in the context of Industry 4.0. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing, Robotics, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/AQTR.2014.6857843"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Latrech, C., Chaibet, A., Boukhnifer, M., and Glaser, S. (2018). Integrated longitudinal and lateral networked control system design for vehicle platooning. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18093085"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7975","DOI":"10.3390\/s120607975","article-title":"Reliable Finite Frequency Filter Design for Networked Control Systems with Sensor Faults","volume":"12","author":"Ju","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, C., Mart\u00ednez-Rey, M., Espinosa, F., Gardel, A., and Santiso, E. (2017). Event-based sensing and control for remote robot guidance: An experimental case. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17092034"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2015.04.015","article-title":"Stability of Networked Control System (NCS) with discrete time-driven PID controllers","volume":"42","author":"Dasgupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2015.2512235","article-title":"The cybersecurity landscape in industrial control systems","volume":"104","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1641","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2017.2676005","article-title":"Covert Attacks in Cyber-Physical Control Systems","volume":"13","author":"Machado","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csi.2013.04.003","article-title":"Improving simulation of wireless networked control systems based on WirelessHART","volume":"35","author":"Ferrari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Stand. Interfac."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2948","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2006.881973","article-title":"Network control system applied to a large pressurized heavy water reactor","volume":"53","author":"Das","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2013.2274199","article-title":"Networked control of a large pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) with discrete proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers","volume":"60","author":"Dasgupta","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2014.2364723","article-title":"Covert Misappropriation of Networked Control Systems: Presenting a Feedback Structure","volume":"35","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Control Syst. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Sa, A.O., da Costa Carmo, L.F.R., and Machado, R.C.S. (2017). Bio-inspired Active System Identification: A Cyber-Physical Intelligence Attack in Networked Control Systems. Mob. Netw. Appl., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11036-017-0943-5"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2011.67","article-title":"Stuxnet: Dissecting a cyberwarfare weapon","volume":"9","author":"Langner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Secur. Priv. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, R. (September, January 28). A decoupled feedback structure for covertly appropriating networked control systems. Proceedings of the 18th IFAC World Congress 2011, IFAC-PapersOnLine, Milano, Italy.","DOI":"10.3182\/20110828-6-IT-1002.01721"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.automatica.2014.10.067","article-title":"A secure control framework for resource-limited adversaries","volume":"51","author":"Teixeira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Automatica"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Zetter, K. (2014). Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World\u2019s First Digital Weapon, Crown."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"29","article-title":"W32. stuxnet dossier","volume":"5","author":"Falliere","year":"2011","journal-title":"White Pap. Symantec Corp. Secur. Response"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MIM.2011.6086896","article-title":"WirelessHART field devices","volume":"14","author":"Muller","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Instrum. Meas. Mag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2011.943023","article-title":"WirelessHART Versus ISA100. 11a: The Format War Hits the Factory Floor","volume":"4","author":"Petersen","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Collantes, M.H., and Padilla, A.L. (2015). Protocols and Network Security in ICS Infrastructures, Technical Report; Spanish National Institute for Cyber-Security ( INCIBE)."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Peschke, J., Reinelt, D., Yumin, W., and Treytl, A. (2006, January 20\u201322). Security in industrial ethernet. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Granat, A., H\u00d6FKEN, H., and Schuba, M. (2017, January 26\u201327). Intrusion Detection of the ICS Protocol EtherCAT. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Computer, Network Security and Communication Engineering (CNSCE 2017), Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.12783\/dtcse\/cnsce2017\/8885"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"2639750","article-title":"Development of the ECAT Preprocessor with the Trust Communication Approach","volume":"2018","author":"Ozcelik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yung, J., Debar, H., and Granboulan, L. (2016, January 26\u201330). Security Issues and Mitigation in Ethernet POWERLINK. Proceedings of the Conference on Security of Industrial-Control-and Cyber-Physical Systems, Crete, Greece.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61437-3_6"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathur, A.P., and Tippenhauer, N.O. (2016, January 11). SWaT: a water treatment testbed for research and training on ICS security. Proceedings of the 2016 International Workshop on Cyber-physical Systems for Smart Water Networks (CySWater), Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/CySWater.2016.7469060"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pfrang, S., and Meier, D. (2017, January 9\u201321). On the Detection of Replay Attacks in Industrial Automation Networks Operated with Profinet IO. Proceedings of the ICISSP, Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.5220\/0006288106830693"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akerberg, J., and Bjorkman, M. (2009, January 20\u201324). Exploring security in PROFINET IO. Proceedings of the 2009 33rd Annual IEEE International Computer Software and Applications Conference, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMPSAC.2009.61"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"A controller design for mitigation of passive system identification attacks in networked control systems","volume":"9","author":"Machado","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Int. Serv. Appl."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rubio-Hernan, J., Rodolfo-Mejias, J., and Garcia-Alfaro, J. (2016, January 26\u201330). Security of cyber-physical systems. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Security of Industrial Control Systems and Cyber-Physical Systems, Crete, Greece.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61437-3_1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stouffer, K., Pillitteri, V., Lightman, S., Abrams, M., and Hahn, A. (2015). NIST Special Publication 800-82, Revision 2: Guide to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security, National Institute of Standards and Technology.","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.SP.800-82r2"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1109\/TCST.2011.2160543","article-title":"Design and implementation of secure networked predictive control systems under deception attacks","volume":"20","author":"Pang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerard, B., Reba\u00ef, S.B., Voos, H., and Darouach, M. (2018, January 27\u201329). Cyber security and vulnerability analysis of networked control system subject to false-data injection. Proceedings of the 2018 Annual American Control Conference (ACC), Milwaukee, WI, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/ACC.2018.8431204"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miao, F., Zhu, Q., Pajic, M., and Pappas, G.J. (2014, January 15\u201317). Coding sensor outputs for injection attacks detection. Proceedings of the 53rd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CDC.2014.7040293"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5315","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2902357","article-title":"A Low Power WSNs Attack Detection and Isolation Mechanism for Critical Smart Grid Applications","volume":"19","author":"Dhunna","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7641","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2661247","article-title":"Detection of attacks against power grid sensors using Kalman filter and statistical decision making","volume":"17","author":"Rigatos","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2014.2364724","article-title":"Physical authentication of control systems: Designing watermarked control inputs to detect counterfeit sensor outputs","volume":"35","author":"Mo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Control Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo, Y., and Sinopoli, B. (2009, January 30). Secure control against replay attacks. Proceedings of the 2009 47th Annual Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing (Allerton), Monticello, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ALLERTON.2009.5394956"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1396","DOI":"10.1109\/TCST.2013.2280899","article-title":"Detecting integrity attacks on SCADA systems","volume":"22","author":"Mo","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.1502","article-title":"Detection and isolation of replay attacks through sensor watermarking","volume":"50","author":"Ferrari","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"113","article-title":"Advanced social engineering attacks","volume":"22","author":"Krombholz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Inf. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Skolnik, M.I. (1990). Radar Handbook, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"8121","article-title":"Backtracking search optimization algorithm for numerical optimization problems","volume":"219","author":"Civicioglu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Comput."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-1098(90)90156-C","article-title":"Generalized binary noise test-signal concept for improved identification-experiment design","volume":"26","author":"Tulleken","year":"1990","journal-title":"Automatica"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de S\u00e1, A.O., Carmo, L.F.R.d.C., and Machado, R.C.S. (2019, January 4\u20136). Countermeasure for Identification of Controlled Data Injection Attacks in Networked Control Systems. Proceedings of the 2019 II Workshop on Metrology for Industry 4.0 and IoT (MetroInd4. 0&IoT), Naples, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/METROI4.2019.8792898"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Stallings, W. (2006). Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practices, Pearson Education India."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2350","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2015.140315","article-title":"Novel noncoherent radar pulse integration to combat noise jamming","volume":"51","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1956.1056786","article-title":"Effects of signal fluctuation on the detection of pulse signals in noise","volume":"2","author":"Schwartz","year":"1956","journal-title":"IRE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Song, Y., and Yu, J. (2012). Network-in-the-Loop Simulation Platform for Control System. AsiaSim 2012, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-34390-2_7"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2005.844422","article-title":"Denial of service attacks on network-based control systems: impact and mitigation","volume":"1","author":"Long","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ind. Inf. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5864","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2012.2233692","article-title":"Robust tracking control of networked control systems: application to a networked DC motor","volume":"60","author":"Shi","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"2225","article-title":"Study on Sample Rate and Performance of a Networked Control System by Simulation","volume":"139","author":"Si","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res. Trans. Tech. Publ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.20965\/jaciii.2007.p1224","article-title":"Robust non-overshoot time responses using cascade sliding mode-pid control","volume":"11","author":"Tran","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Adv. Comput. Intell. Intell. Inf."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/792\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:53:33Z","timestamp":1760172813000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/792"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20030792"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20030792","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]]}}}