{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T04:08:44Z","timestamp":1776053324134,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Data and services are available anywhere at any time thanks to the Internet and mobile devices. Nowadays, there are new ways of representing data through trendy technologies such as augmented reality (AR), which extends our perception of reality through the addition of a virtual layer on top of real-time images. The great potential of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for carrying out routine and professional tasks has encouraged their use in the creation of several services, such as package delivery or industrial maintenance. Unfortunately, drone piloting is difficult to learn and requires specific training. Since regular training is performed with virtual simulations, we decided to propose a multiplatform cloud-hosted solution based in Web AR for drone training and usability testing. This solution defines a configurable trajectory through virtual elements represented over barcode markers placed on a real environment. The main goal is to provide an inclusive and accessible training solution which could be used by anyone who wants to learn how to pilot or test research related to UAV control. For this paper, we reviewed drones, AR, and human\u2013drone interaction (HDI) to propose an architecture and implement a prototype, which was built using a Raspberry Pi 3, a camera, and barcode markers. The validation was conducted using several test scenarios. The results show that a real-time AR experience for drone pilot training and usability testing is achievable through web technologies. Some of the advantages of this approach, compared to traditional methods, are its high availability by using the web and other ubiquitous devices; the minimization of technophobia related to crashes; and the development of cost-effective alternatives to train pilots and make the testing phase easier for drone researchers and developers through trendy technologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T20:54:08Z","timestamp":1613768048000},"page":"1456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Web AR Solution for UAV Pilot Training and Usability Testing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1547-4674","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Communication Research Centre, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Campus 2, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, Apartado 4163, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5361-9809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Ramos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Communication Research Centre, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Campus 2, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, Apartado 4163, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5700-7893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Safadinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Communication Research Centre, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Campus 2, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, Apartado 4163, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9818-7090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ars\u00e9nio","family":"Reis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7332-4397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Rabad\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Communication Research Centre, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Campus 2, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, Apartado 4163, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4847-5104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Barroso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5062-1241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Communication Research Centre, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Campus 2, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, Apartado 4163, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"},{"name":"INOV INESC Inova\u00e7\u00e3o, Institute of New Technologies, Leiria Office, Campus 2, Morro do Lena-Alto do Vieiro, Apartado 4163, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0295-x","article-title":"A Literature Review on New Robotics: Automation from Love to War","volume":"7","author":"Royakkers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. 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