{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T15:20:39Z","timestamp":1775834439996,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,15]],"date-time":"2021-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006182","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o do Esp\u00edrito Santo","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["515\/16"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["515\/16"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006182","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Universidade Federal do Esp\u00edrito Santo (UFES)","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]},{"name":"Horizon 2020","award":["Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 843870"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 843870"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation (NSF)","award":["EEC-1449500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EEC-1449500"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urea is an added value chemical with wide applications in the industry and agriculture. The release of urea waste to the environment affects ecosystem health despite its low toxicity. Online monitoring of urea for industrial applications and environmental health is an unaddressed challenge. Electroanalytical techniques can be a smart integrated solution for online monitoring if sensors can overcome the major barrier associated with long-term stability. Mixed metal oxides have shown excellent stability in environmental conditions with long lasting operational lives. However, these materials have been barely explored for sensing applications. This work presents a proof of concept that demonstrates the applicability of an indirect electroanalytical quantification method of urea. The use of Ti\/RuO2-TiO2-SnO2 dimensional stable anode (DSA\u00ae) can provide accurate and sensitive quantification of urea in aqueous samples exploiting the excellent catalytic properties of DSA\u00ae on the electrogeneration of active chlorine species. The cathodic reduction of accumulated HClO\/ClO\u2212 from anodic electrogeneration presented a direct relationship with urea concentration. This novel method can allow urea quantification with a competitive LOD of 1.83 \u00d7 10\u22126 mol L\u22121 within a linear range of 6.66 \u00d7 10\u22126 to 3.33 \u00d7 10\u22124 mol L\u22121 of urea concentration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21103450","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,17]],"date-time":"2021-05-17T02:31:34Z","timestamp":1621218694000},"page":"3450","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Dimensionally Stable Anode Based Sensor for Urea Determination via Linear Sweep Voltammetry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Maria de Lourdes S.","family":"Vasconcellos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Qu\u00edmica, Centro de Ci\u00eancias Exatas, Universidade Federal do Esp\u00edrito Santo, Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vit\u00f3ria CEP 29075-910, ES, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Luiz Ricardo G.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Qu\u00edmica, Centro de Ci\u00eancias Exatas, Universidade Federal do Esp\u00edrito Santo, Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vit\u00f3ria CEP 29075-910, ES, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Chung-Seop","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9078-6825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Sofia","family":"Fajardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1417-6416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergi","family":"Garcia-Segura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9544-1647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josimar","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Qu\u00edmica, Centro de Ci\u00eancias Exatas, Universidade Federal do Esp\u00edrito Santo, Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vit\u00f3ria CEP 29075-910, ES, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erfkamp, J., Guenther, M., and Gerlach, G. (2019). Enzyme-Functionalized piezoresistive hydrogel biosensors for the detection of urea. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19132858"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4458","DOI":"10.1039\/C5NR07690K","article-title":"Label-free and pH-sensitive colorimetric materials for the sensing of urea","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1109\/TNANO.2014.2378892","article-title":"Absorption of Urea Into Zeolite Layer Integrated With Microelectronic Circuits","volume":"14","author":"Fiorillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.09.067","article-title":"Determination of urea with special emphasis on biosensors: A review","volume":"123","author":"Pundir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2015.08.004","article-title":"Disposable urea biosensor based on nanoporous ZnO film fabricated from omissible polymeric substrate","volume":"57","author":"Rahmanian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12220","DOI":"10.3390\/s120912220","article-title":"Voltamperometric Discrimination of Urea and Melamine Adulterated Skimmed Milk Powder","volume":"12","author":"Fauerbach","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2019.100635","article-title":"Metal oxides based electrochemical pH sensors: Current progress and future perspectives","volume":"109","author":"Manjakkal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1149\/2.F05104if","article-title":"Sensors for Agriculture and the Food Industry","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electrochem. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.10.078","article-title":"Solid-state sensors monitoring parameters of water quality for the next generation of wireless sensor networks","volume":"161","author":"Zhuiykov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E50","DOI":"10.1149\/2.1391902jes","article-title":"Electrochemical Oxidation of Bromides on DSA\/RuO2Anode in the Semi-Industrial Batch Reactor for On-Site Water Disinfection","volume":"166","author":"Grgur","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/MPAE.2006.1687817","article-title":"Implementation of online security assessment","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Power Energy Mag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2019.04.016","article-title":"Electrochemically-driven mineralization of Reactive Blue 4 cotton dye: On the role of in situ generated oxidants","volume":"840","author":"Nakamura","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coelec.2020.03.001","article-title":"Disparities between experimental and environmental conditions: Research steps toward making electrochemical water treatment a reality","volume":"22","author":"Nienhauser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4686(84)85004-5","article-title":"Electrocatalysis in the anodic evolution of oxygen and chlorine","volume":"29","author":"Trasatti","year":"1984","journal-title":"Electrochimica Acta"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2012.05.122","article-title":"RuO2-based anodes with tailored surface morphology for improved chlorine electro-activity","volume":"78","author":"Trieu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electrochimica Acta"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s10717-020-00252-1","article-title":"Water-Soluble Urea-Formaldehyde Oligomers in Paint for Single-Firing Decoration of Ceramic","volume":"77","author":"Papulova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glas. Ceram."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elecom.2010.06.019","article-title":"Ammonia oxidation to nitrogen mediated by electrogenerated active chlorine on Ti\/PtOx-IrO2","volume":"12","author":"Katsaounis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electrochem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.4236\/aces.2016.64037","article-title":"Morphological and Electrochemical Characterization of Ti\/MxTiySnzO2 (M = Ir or Ru) Electrodes Prepared by the Polymeric Precursor Method","volume":"6","author":"Carneiro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9293","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-007-1906-1","article-title":"Effect of the preparation methodology on some physical and electrochemical properties of Ti\/IrxSn(1\u2212x)O2 materials","volume":"42","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2015.10.036","article-title":"Sensing mechanism of RuO2\u2013SnO2 thick film pH sensors studied by potentiometric method and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy","volume":"759","author":"Manjakkal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10700","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b02018","article-title":"Sequential Combination of Electro-Fenton and Electrochemical Chlorination Processes for the Treatment of Anaerobically-Digested Food Wastewater","volume":"51","author":"Shin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2008.07.019","article-title":"Electrooxidation of glyphosate herbicide at different DSA\u00ae compositions: pH, concentration and supporting electrolyte effect","volume":"54","author":"Neto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"437","article-title":"Efecto del pH sobre la oxidaci\u00f3n electroqu\u00edmica de fenol empleando un \u00e1nodo dimensionalmente estable de SnO2-Sb2O5-RuO2","volume":"14","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Mex. Ing. Qu\u00edm."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crittenden, J.C., Trussell, R.R., Hand, D.W., Howe, K.J., and Tchobanoglous, G. (2012). Water Treatment Principles and Design, Wiley. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118131473"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.05.046","article-title":"Electrogeneration of inorganic chloramines on boron-doped diamond anodes during electrochemical oxidation of ammonium chloride, urea and synthetic urine matrix","volume":"160","author":"Mostafa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2014.01.037","article-title":"Square-wave voltammetric determination of hydroxychloroquine in pharmaceutical and synthetic urine samples using a cathodically pretreated boron-doped diamond electrode","volume":"719","author":"Deroco","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0248(01)01547-0","article-title":"Laser-probe-based investigation of the evolution of particle size distributions of calcium oxalate particles formed in artificial urines","volume":"233","author":"Laube","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2015.02.026","article-title":"The electrolytic treatment of synthetic urine using DSA electrodes","volume":"744","author":"Dbira","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Cullity, B.D. (2001). Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, Addison-Wesley. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01020219","article-title":"Characterization of DSA|oxygen evolving electrodes: Choice of a coating","volume":"21","author":"Comninellis","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Appl. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1590\/S0103-50532006000400020","article-title":"Effect of solvent on the preparation and characterization of DSA\u00ae-type anodes containing RuO2-TiO2-SnO2","volume":"17","author":"Coteiro","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Braz. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3987","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00980762","article-title":"A structural investigation of stabilized oxygen evolution catalysts","volume":"19","author":"Hutchings","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solidstatesciences.2019.105957","article-title":"Conductivity studies on the substituted stannate pyrochlore system Gd2Sn2-x-yMxAyO7 (M= Ti and A = Ru; x = 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5; y = 0.2)","volume":"96","author":"Srinivasan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Solid State Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1007\/s10717-018-0045-2","article-title":"Investigation of Electrodes with an Active Layer of a Mixture of the Oxides TiO2, RuO2, SnO2","volume":"75","author":"Kolesnikov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glas. Ceram."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D106","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1787174","article-title":"Characterization of RuO[sub 2]-Ta[sub 2]O[sub 5] Coated Titanium Electrode","volume":"151","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7645","DOI":"10.1021\/ac200677g","article-title":"Visualization of Chlorine Evolution at Dimensionally Stable Anodes by Means of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy","volume":"83","author":"Zeradjanin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bulska, E. (2018). Metrology in Chemistry, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-99206-8"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"An AgNP-deposited commercial electrochemistry test strip as a platform for urea detection","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012054","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1442\/1\/012054","article-title":"Development of a non-enzymatic urea sensor based on a Ni\/Au electrode","volume":"1442","author":"Irzalinda","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2020.122798","article-title":"A non-enzymatic urea sensor based on the nickel sulfide \/ graphene oxide modified glassy carbon electrode","volume":"245","author":"Naik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.09.046","article-title":"Nickel\/cobalt oxide-decorated 3D graphene nanocomposite electrode for enhanced electrochemical detection of urea","volume":"77","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.05.165","article-title":"Nickel oxide-deposited cellulose\/CNT composite electrode for non-enzymatic urea detection","volume":"236","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/0269-7491(95)00090-9","article-title":"Heavy metals incidence in the application of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to rice farming soils","volume":"92","author":"Andreu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-018-2130-z","article-title":"Textile dye wastewater characteristics and constituents of synthetic effluents: A critical review","volume":"16","author":"Yaseen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.04.030","article-title":"Voltammetric determination of copper and tert-butylhydroquinone in biodiesel: A rapid quality control protocol","volume":"201","author":"Squissato","year":"2019","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1595\/205651318X15367593796080","article-title":"Continuous Chlorine Detection in Drinking Water and a Review of New Detection Methods","volume":"63","author":"Wilson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Johns. Matthey Technol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.10.075","article-title":"Enzyme biosensor systems based on porous silicon photoluminescence for detection of glucose, urea and heavy metals","volume":"66","author":"Syshchyk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.5012\/bkcs.2002.23.8.1169","article-title":"Determination of Heavy Metal Inos Using Conductometric Biosensor Based on Sol-Gel Immobilized Urease","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Korean Chem. Soc."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/10\/3450\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:01:57Z","timestamp":1760162517000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/10\/3450"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,15]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s21103450"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21103450","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,15]]}}}