{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T16:07:34Z","timestamp":1776874054514,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Regional Research Foundation of Western Norway","award":["285122"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["285122"]}]},{"name":"ConocoPhillips Norge AS","award":["285122"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["285122"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study introduces an alternative to the existing methods for measuring ocean currents based on a recently developed technology. The SailBuoy is an unmanned surface vehicle powered by wind and solar panels that can navigate autonomously to predefined waypoints and record velocity profiles using an integrated downward-looking acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP). Data collected on two validation campaigns show a satisfactory correlation between the SailBuoy current records and traditional observation techniques such as bottom-mounted and moored current profilers and moored single-point current meter. While the highest correlations were found in tidal signals, strong current, and calm weather conditions, low current speeds and varying high wave and wind conditions reduced correlation considerably. Filtering out some events with the high sea surface roughness associated with high wind and wave conditions may increase the SailBuoy ADCP listening quality and lead to better correlations. Not yet resolved is a systematic offset between the measurements obtained by the SailBuoy and the reference instruments of \u00b10.03 m\/s. Possible reasons are discussed to be the differences between instruments (various products) as well as changes in background noise levels due to environmental conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155553","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,26]],"date-time":"2022-07-26T00:17:27Z","timestamp":1658794647000},"page":"5553","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["SailBuoy Ocean Currents: Low-Cost Upper-Layer Ocean Current Measurements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Nellie","family":"Wullenweber","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Plentzia Marine Station (PiE-UPV\/EHU), University of the Basque Country, 48620 Plentzia, Spain"},{"name":"National Oceanography Center, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Sciences, University of Li\u00e8ge, 4000 Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"},{"name":"Norwegian Meteorological Institute, 5007 Bergen, Norway"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2246-9235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lars R.","family":"Hole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Meteorological Institute, 5007 Bergen, Norway"}]},{"given":"Peygham","family":"Ghaffari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Akvaplan-Niva, 0579 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Inger","family":"Graves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aanderaa-Xylem, 5225 Nesttun, Norway"}]},{"given":"Harald","family":"Tholo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aanderaa-Xylem, 5225 Nesttun, Norway"}]},{"given":"Lionel","family":"Camus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Akvaplan-Niva, 0579 Oslo, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velasco, L., Balbuena, J., Gonzales, J., and Cuellar, F. (2021, January 20\u201323). Development of an ASV for Oceanographic Monitoring on the Huarmey Coast. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 30th International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIE45552.2021.9576371"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Fer, I., and Peddie, D. (2016). Report on Wave Measurements Using the Sailbuoy Wave, Offshore Sensing AS."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fer, I., and Peddie, D. (2013, January 10\u201314). Near Surface Oceanographic Measurements Using the SailBuoy. Proceedings of the 2013 MTS\/IEEE OCEANS, Bergen, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS-Bergen.2013.6607969"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mio.2014.08.001","article-title":"The SailBuoy Remotely-Controlled Unmanned Vessel: Measurements of near Surface Temperature, Salinity and Oxygen Concentration in the Northern Gulf of Mexico","volume":"10","author":"Ghani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Methods Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1109\/TCST.2019.2908141","article-title":"Environmental Feature Exploration With a Single Autonomous Vehicle","volume":"28","author":"Mellucci","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00448","article-title":"Public\u2013Private Partnerships to Advance Regional Ocean-Observing Capabilities: A Saildrone and NOAA-PMEL Case Study and Future Considerations to Expand to Global Scale Observing","volume":"6","author":"Meinig","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s11370-011-0095-6","article-title":"The use of autonomous vehicles for spatially measuring mean velocity profiles in rivers and estuaries","volume":"4","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intell. Serv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Fer, I., and Peddie, D. (2012). Navigation Performance of the SailBuoy Bergen\u2013Scotland Mission, Christian Michelsen Research AS. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"38","article-title":"SailBuoy Unmanned Surface Vehicle for Ocean Monitoring","volume":"56","author":"Barrera","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-016-0969-4","article-title":"Directional Wave Measurements Using an Autonomous Vessel","volume":"66","author":"Hole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ocean Dyn."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Nortek (2018). Comprehensive Manual for ADCP, Nortek AS."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-4343(92)90022-C","article-title":"Ship ADCP Measurements and Tidal Models of the North Sea","volume":"12","author":"Howarth","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-3004(02)00013-4","article-title":"Classical Tidal Harmonic Analysis Including Error Estimates in MATLAB Using T_TIDE","volume":"28","author":"Pawlowicz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"60","article-title":"Oceanographic Processes in the German Bight","volume":"74","author":"Klein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Die K\u00fcste"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Tengberg, D.A., Hovdenes, J., and Tholo, H. (2017). Oceanographic Wave Measurements on Hydrography and Navigation Buoys: Introduction, Technology and MOTUS. Aanderaa\/Xylem White Paper, Aanderaa Data Instruments AS."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/15\/5553\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:56:13Z","timestamp":1760140573000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/15\/5553"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"references-count":15,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s22155553"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22155553","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202206.0288.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]}}}