{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:06:08Z","timestamp":1760231168873,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,29]],"date-time":"2022-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661731200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University","award":["UIDB\/50008\/2020","313036\/2020-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50008\/2020","313036\/2020-9"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["UIDB\/50008\/2020","313036\/2020-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50008\/2020","313036\/2020-9"]}]},{"name":"Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development\u2014CNPq","award":["UIDB\/50008\/2020","313036\/2020-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50008\/2020","313036\/2020-9"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The correlations between smartphone sensors, algorithms, and relevant techniques are major components facilitating indoor localization and tracking in the absence of communication and localization standards. A major research gap can be noted in terms of explaining the connections between these components to clarify the impacts and issues of models meant for indoor localization and tracking. In this paper, we comprehensively study the smartphone sensors, algorithms, and techniques that can support indoor localization and tracking without the need for any additional hardware or specific infrastructure. Reviews and comparisons detail the strengths and limitations of each component, following which we propose a handheld-device-based indoor localization with zero infrastructure (HDIZI) approach to connect the abovementioned components in a balanced manner. The sensors are the input source, while the algorithms are used as engines in an optimal manner, in order to produce a robust localizing and tracking model without requiring any further infrastructure. The proposed framework makes indoor and outdoor navigation more user-friendly, and is cost-effective for researchers working with embedded sensors in handheld devices, enabling technologies for Industry 4.0 and beyond. We conducted experiments using data collected from two different sites with five smartphones as an initial work. The data were sampled at 10 Hz for a duration of five seconds at fixed locations; furthermore, data were also collected while moving, allowing for analysis based on user stepping behavior and speed across multiple paths. We leveraged the capabilities of smartphones, through efficient implementation and the optimal integration of algorithms, in order to overcome the inherent limitations. Hence, the proposed HDIZI is expected to outperform approaches proposed in previous studies, helping researchers to deal with sensors for the purposes of indoor navigation\u2014in terms of either positioning or tracking\u2014for use in various fields, such as healthcare, transportation, environmental monitoring, or disaster situations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22176513","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]],"date-time":"2022-08-30T01:37:55Z","timestamp":1661823475000},"page":"6513","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Handheld Device-Based Indoor Localization with Zero Infrastructure (HDIZI)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4321-1137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah M.","family":"AlSahly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3479-3606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Mehedi","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8062-3301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kashif","family":"Saleem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence in Information Assurance (CoEIA), King Saud University, Riyadh 11653, Saudi Arabia"}]},{"given":"Amerah","family":"Alabrah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8657-3800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joel J. P. C.","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science and Technology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266555, China"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Kusens, M. (2019). Electronic Location Determination & Tracking System with Virtual Beacon Clustering. (10,194,278), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Friday, R., Castagnoli, N.D., and Frei, R.W. (2018). Dynamic Virtual Beacon Methods and Apparatus. (9967803B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Smith, M.T. (2019). Virtual Beacon System. (7231441B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Hubner, P.V., Charfauros, A., Diego, S., Sweeney, W., and Ridge, B. (2017). Providing a Message Based on Translating a Beacon Identifier to a Virtual Beacon Identifier. 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