{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T11:01:39Z","timestamp":1776769299114,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]],"date-time":"2022-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663632000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDB\/50014\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50014\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["075-15-2021-581"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2021-581"]}]},{"name":"Russian Ministry of Higher Education and Science","award":["UIDB\/50014\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50014\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Russian Ministry of Higher Education and Science","award":["075-15-2021-581"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2021-581"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we investigated the evolution of the dispersion curves of long-period fiber gratings (LPFGs) from room temperature down to 0 K. We considered gratings arc-induced in the SMF28 fiber and in two B\/Ge co-doped fibers. Computer simulations were performed based on previously published experimental data. We found that the dispersion curves belonging to the lowest-order cladding modes are the most affected by the temperature changes, but those changes are minute when considering cladding modes with dispersion turning points (DTP) in the telecommunication windows. The temperature sensitivity is higher for gratings inscribed in the B\/Ge co-doped fibers near DTP and the optimum grating period can be chosen at room temperature. A temperature sensitivity as high as \u2212850 pm\/K can be obtained in the 100\u2013200 K temperature range, while a value of \u2212170 pm\/K is reachable at 20 K.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]],"date-time":"2022-09-21T00:08:09Z","timestamp":1663718889000},"page":"7119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["High Sensitivity Cryogenic Temperature Sensors Based on Arc-Induced Long-Period Fiber Gratings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4443-7514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oleg V.","family":"Ivanov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ulyanovsk Branch of Kotel\u2019nikov Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulitsa Goncharova 48, 432071 Ulyanovsk, Russia"},{"name":"S.P. Kapitsa Research Institute of Technology, Ulyanovsk State University, Ulitsa L. Tolstogo 42, 432017 Ulyanovsk, Russia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3223-9783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Caldas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gest\u00e3o, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Applied Photonics, Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science\u2014INESC TEC, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8807-4108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaspar","family":"Rego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gest\u00e3o, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Applied Photonics, Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science\u2014INESC TEC, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4701705","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2022.3164035","article-title":"Ultrasonic Waveguides for Quench Detection in HTS Magnets","volume":"32","author":"Marchevsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, F., Wang, Z., Zhang, H., Wang, D., Li, W., and Cai, W. (2021). Experimental study of large-temperature-range and long-period monitoring for LNG marine auxiliary based on fiber bragg grating temperature measurement. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9090917"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4007805","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2018.2810192","article-title":"Strain Measurements with Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors in the Short Models of the HiLumi LHC Low-Beta Quadrupole Magnet MQXF","volume":"28","author":"Chiuchiolo","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cryogenics.2009.07.002","article-title":"Fiber-optic Bragg gratings as magnetic field-insensitive strain sensors for the surveillance of cryogenic devices","volume":"49","author":"Latka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cryogenics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114002","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6668\/aa8762","article-title":"Self-monitoring \u2018SMART\u2019 (RE)Ba2Cu3O7-x conductor via integrated optical fibers","volume":"30","author":"Scurti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaime, M., Moya, C.C., Weickert, F., Zapf, V., Balakirev, F.F., Wartenbe, M., Rosa, P.F.S., Betts, J.B., Rodriguez, G., and Crooker, S.A. (2017). Fiber bragg grating dilatometry in extreme magnetic field and cryogenic conditions. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112572"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s10948-018-4884-4","article-title":"Superconductor Electronics: Status and Outlook","volume":"32","author":"Braginski","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Supercond. Nov. Magn."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1109\/7361.983476","article-title":"A review of cryogenic thermometry and common temperature sensors","volume":"1","author":"Yeager","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kazemi, A.A., Yang, C., and Chen, S. (2009, January 13\u201314). Fiber optic cryogenic liquid level detection system for space applications. Proceedings of the Photonics in the Transportation Industry: Auto to Aerospace II, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.821374"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e9ndez, A. (2017, January 26\u201329). Fiber Bragg grating sensors in harsh environments: Considerations and industrial monitoring applications. Proceedings of the Optical Measurement Systems for Industrial Inspection X, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2276584"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Miguel-Soto, V., Leandro, D., Lopez-Aldaba, A., Beato-L\u00f3pez, J.J., P\u00e9rez-Landaz\u00e1bal, J.I., Auguste, J.L., Jamier, R., Roy, P., and Lopez-Amo, M. (2017). Study of optical fiber sensors for cryogenic temperature measurements. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122773"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, X., Soto, M.A., and Th\u00e9venaz, L. (2014, January 2\u20136). MilliKelvin resolution in cryogenic temperature distributed fibre sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering. Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Optical Fibre Sensors, Santander, Spain.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2059659"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3016322","article-title":"Evaluation of Fiber Optic Raman Scattering Distributed Temperature Sensor between \u2212196 and 400 \u00b0C","volume":"21","author":"Barros","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/13\/10\/304","article-title":"Strain response of fibre Bragg grating sensors at cryogenic temperatures","volume":"13","author":"James","year":"2002","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601610","article-title":"Temperature dependence of fiber optic Bragg gratings at low temperatures","volume":"37","author":"Reid","year":"1998","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2108280","article-title":"ORMOCER coated fiber-optic Bragg grating sensors at cryogenic temperatures","volume":"12","author":"Habisreuther","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2020.106768","article-title":"Study of fiber Bragg gratings with TiN-coated for cryogenic temperature measurement","volume":"136","author":"Hsu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cryogenics.2008.02.007","article-title":"Performance evaluation of metal-coated fiber Bragg grating sensors for sensing cryogenic temperature","volume":"48","author":"Suesser","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cryogenics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cryogenics.2020.103233","article-title":"Development of fiber Bragg grating strain sensor with temperature compensation for measurement of cryogenic structures","volume":"113","author":"Shiratsuchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cryogenics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, T., Wang, H., and Wang, X. (2021). Strain transfer characteristics of multi-layer optical fiber sensors with temperature-dependent properties at low temperature. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020495"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rego, G., Caldas, P., and Ivanov, O.V. (2021). Arc-induced long-period fiber gratings at inesc tec. Part II: Properties and applications in optical communications and sensing. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21175914"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"092501","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.51.092501","article-title":"Highly-Sensitive and -Linear Cryogenic Temperature Response of Long-Period Fiber Gratings Written on B\u2013Ge-Codoped Photosensitive Fiber","volume":"51","author":"Choi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/14\/8\/329","article-title":"Cryogenic temperature response of fibre optic long period gratings","volume":"14","author":"James","year":"2003","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6833","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.47.6833","article-title":"Long-period fiber-grating temperature sensors in Ge-B-codoped fibers with temperature\/strain discrimination","volume":"47","author":"Mizunami","year":"2008","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2511","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2014.2381236","article-title":"Cryogenic Temperature Response of Reflection-Based Phase-Shifted Long-Period Fiber Gratings","volume":"33","author":"Martins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4584","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2016.2540678","article-title":"Arc-Induced Long-Period Fiber Gratings in the Dispersion Turning Points","volume":"34","author":"Caldas","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1109\/50.476137","article-title":"Long-period fiber gratings as band-rejection filters","volume":"14","author":"Vengsarkar","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0030-4018(03)01374-9","article-title":"New technique to mechanically induce long-period fibre gratings","volume":"220","author":"Rego","year":"2003","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rego, G., Caldas, P., and Ivanov, O.V. (2021). Arc-induced long-period fiber gratings at INESC TEC. Part I: Fabrication, characterization and mechanisms of formation. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21144914"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1080\/01468030590922975","article-title":"Arc-induced long-period gratings","volume":"24","author":"Rego","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fiber Integr. Opt."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9594","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.14.009594","article-title":"Demonstration of coupling to symmetric and antisymmetric cladding modes in arc-induced long-period fiber gratings","volume":"14","author":"Rego","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13936","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.15.013936","article-title":"Origin of coupling to antisymmetric modes in arc-induced long-period fiber gratings","volume":"15","author":"Ivanov","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2984","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.32.002984","article-title":"Two types of resonances in long-period gratings induced by arc discharges in boron\/germanium co-doped fibers","volume":"32","author":"Rego","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1109\/50.956145","article-title":"High-temperature stability of long-period fiber gratings produced using an electric arc","volume":"19","author":"Rego","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3947","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2005.857763","article-title":"Tomographic stress profiling of arc-induced long-period fiber gratings","volume":"23","author":"Durr","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1049\/el:20063919","article-title":"Strong asymmetric stresses arc-induced in pre-annealed nitrogen-doped fibres","volume":"42","author":"Rego","year":"2006","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1002\/mop.23572","article-title":"Long-period fiber gratings mechanically induced by winding a string around a fiber\/grooved tube set","volume":"50","author":"Rego","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8271","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.51.008271","article-title":"Refractive index profile changes caused by arc discharge in long-period fiber gratings fabricated by a point-by-point method","volume":"51","author":"Abrishamian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2451","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.002451","article-title":"Arc-discharge effects on residual stress and refractive index in single-mode optical fibers","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4486","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.23.004486","article-title":"Dispersion in GeO2-SiO2 Glasses","volume":"23","author":"Fleming","year":"1984","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1151-2916.1976.tb09418.x","article-title":"Material and Mode Dispersion in GeO2\u00b7B2O3\u00b7SiC2 Glasses","volume":"59","author":"Fleming","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leviton, D.B., and Frey, B.J. (2006, January 24\u201331). Temperature-dependent absolute refractive index measurements of synthetic fused silica. Proceedings of the Optomechanical Technologies for Astronomy, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.672853"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.55.001205","article-title":"Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica","volume":"55","author":"Malitson","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19780222","article-title":"Material dispersion in lightguide glasses","volume":"14","author":"Fleming","year":"1978","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3093(70)90190-0","article-title":"Properties and structure of vitreous silica. I","volume":"5","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2014.07.053","article-title":"Research on the temperature characteristics of optical fiber refractive index","volume":"125","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physb.2009.06.146","article-title":"Heat capacity and low-frequency vibrational density of states. Inferences for the boson peak of silica and alkali silicate glasses","volume":"404","author":"Richet","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. B Condens. Matter"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roths, J., Andrejevic, G., Kuttler, R., and S\u00fc\u00dfer, M. (2006). Calibration of Fiber Bragg Cryogenic Temperature Sensors. Optical Fiber Sensors, Cancun: Optica Publishing Group.","DOI":"10.1364\/OFS.2006.TuE81"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27681","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.027681","article-title":"Fiber Bragg gratings for low-temperature measurement","volume":"22","author":"Baiad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/0011-2275(95)96887-R","article-title":"Laser interferometric dilatometer at low temperatures: Application to fused silica SRM 739","volume":"35","author":"Okaji","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cryogenics"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1109\/50.939796","article-title":"Fictive Temperature Measurement of Single-Mode Optical-Fiber Core and Cladding","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1111\/ijag.12329","article-title":"A unified materials approach to mitigating optical nonlinearities in optical fiber. II. B. The optical fiber, material additivity and the nonlinear coefficients","volume":"9","author":"Dragic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/ijag.12328","article-title":"A unified materials approach to mitigating optical nonlinearities in optical fiber. II. A. Material additivity models and basic glass properties","volume":"9","author":"Dragic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballato, J. (2013, January 28). Rethinking Optical Fiber: New Demands, Old Glasses. Proceedings of the Workshop on Specialty Optical Fibers and their Applications, Sigtuna, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1364\/WSOF.2013.W1.1"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3500","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2005.855867","article-title":"Germania-based core optical fibers","volume":"23","author":"Dianov","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3650","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.42.003650","article-title":"Additivity of the coefficient of thermal expansion in silicate optical fibers","volume":"42","author":"Cavillon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900094","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.201900094","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Optical Fiber Refractometers: Toward a Standard Comparative Criterion","volume":"13","author":"Urrutia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiavaioli, F., Gouveia, C.A.J., Jorge, P.A.S., and Baldini, F. (2017). Towards a uniform metrological assessment of grating-based optical fiber sensors: From refractometers to biosensors. Biosensors, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios7020023"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618322","article-title":"Fiber grating spectra","volume":"15","author":"Erdogan","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/19\/7119\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:35:47Z","timestamp":1760142947000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/19\/7119"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s22197119"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22197119","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]]}}}