{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T04:49:25Z","timestamp":1772340565354,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]],"date-time":"2023-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675728000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The \u201csit-to-stand\u201d (STS) movement is essential during activities of daily living (ADL). In individuals with physical-motor diseases, its execution and repetition increases activity levels, which is crucial for a good motor rehabilitation process and daily training. Interestingly, there are no sit-to-stand devices that allow a quantitative assessment of the key variables that happen during STS, and there is a need to come up with a new device. This work presents a developed biomechanical support device that measures the force of the upper limbs during the STS movement, aiming to motivate and encourage people undergoing physical therapy in the lower limbs. The device uses two instrumented beams and allows real-time visualization of both arms\u2019 applied force and it records the data for post-processing. The device was tested with a well-defined protocol on a group of 34 healthy young volunteers and an elderly group of 16 volunteers from a continuing care unit. The system showed robust strength and stiffness, good usability, and a user interface that acquired and recorded data effectively, allowing one to observe force-time during the execution of the movement through the application interface developed and in recording data for post-processing. Asymmetries in the applied forces in the STS movement between the upper limbs were identified, particularly in volunteers of the continuing care unit. From the application and the registered data, it can be observed that volunteers with motor problems in the lower limbs performed more strength in their arms to compensate. As expected, the maximum average strength of the healthy volunteers (both arms: force = 105 Newton) was higher than that of the volunteers from the continuing care unit (right arm: force = 54 Newton; left arm: force = 56 Newton). Among others, moderate correlations were observed between weight-applied and height-applied forces and there was a moderately high correlation between the Sequential Clinical Assessment of Respiratory Function (SCAR-F score) and time to perform the movement. Based on the obtained results, the developed device can be a helpful tool for monitoring the evaluation of a patient with limitations in the upper and lower limbs. In addition, the developed system allows for easy evolution, such as including a barometric platform and implementing serious games that can stimulate the execution of the STS movement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23041837","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T02:04:16Z","timestamp":1675821856000},"page":"1837","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Development of a Biomechanical Device for Parameter Quantification Associated with the Sit-to-Stand Movement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Natacha","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnic of Coimbra, ISEC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8810-7336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipe","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Medicina de Reabilita\u00e7\u00e3o da Regi\u00e3o Centro, Hospital Rovisco Pais, 3064-908 Tocha, Portugal"},{"name":"Applied Biomechanics Laboratory, i2A-IPC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8737-7569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"La\u00edns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Medicina de Reabilita\u00e7\u00e3o da Regi\u00e3o Centro, Hospital Rovisco Pais, 3064-908 Tocha, Portugal"},{"name":"Applied Biomechanics Laboratory, i2A-IPC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1228-6072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deolinda","family":"Rasteiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnic of Coimbra, ISEC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Applied Biomechanics Laboratory, i2A-IPC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6043-6007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Roseiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnic of Coimbra, ISEC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Applied Biomechanics Laboratory, i2A-IPC, Rua Pedro Nunes, Quinta da Nora, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), University of Coimbra, Pinhal de Marrocos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Campos Padilla, I.Y. (2016). Biomechanical Analysis of the Sit-to-Stand Transition. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Manchester]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(00)00061-0","article-title":"Studies of human locomotion: Past, present and future","volume":"33","author":"Andriacchi","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huston, R. (2009). Principles of Biomechanics, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420018400"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Margareta, N., and Victor, F. (2004). Biomecanica Basica del Sistema Muscoloesqueletico, MCGraw-Hill\/Interamericana de Espa\u00f1a."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Knudson, D. (2007). Fundamentals of Biomechanics, Springer."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2007.10.003","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of sit to stand movement: Experimental set-up definition and application to healthy and hemiplegic adults","volume":"28","author":"Galli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/53A.2.M126","article-title":"Dynamic stability in elders: Momentum control in locomotor ADL","volume":"53","author":"Kaya","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Gerontol.-Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/0966-6362(94)90100-7","article-title":"Control of body centre mass of momentum during sit-to-stand among young and elderly adults","volume":"2","author":"Pai","year":"1994","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.018564","article-title":"Sit to stand transfer: Performance in rising power, transfer time and sway by age and sex in senior athletes","volume":"39","author":"Feland","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1034","article-title":"Clinical Measurement of Sit-to-Stand Performance in People With Balance Disorders: Validity of Data for the Five-Times-Sit-to-Stand Test","volume":"85","author":"Test","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Ther. Rehabil. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0b013e3181d3e90a","article-title":"Balance ability, not muscle strength and exercise endurance, determines the performance of hemiparetic subjects on the timed-sit-to-stand test","volume":"89","author":"Ng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/10749357.2019.1574417","article-title":"The biomechanical investigation of the relationship between balance and muscular strength in people with chronic stroke: A pilot cross-sectional study","volume":"26","author":"Wagatsuma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Top. Stroke Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2009.10.030","article-title":"5-Repetition Sit-to-Stand Test in Subjects With Chronic Stroke: Reliability and Validity","volume":"91","author":"Mong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"15","article-title":"Osteoporose e quedas: Problemas n\u00e3o valorizados pela comunidade m\u00e9dica portuguesa","volume":"31","author":"Barbosa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. da SPMFR"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barry, E., Galvin, R., Keogh, C., Horgan, F., and Fahey, T. (2014). Is the Timed Up and Go test a useful predictor of risk of falls in community dwelling older adults: A systematic review and meta- analysis. BMC Geriatr., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2318-14-14"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3233\/NRE-1999-13303","article-title":"The functional ambulation performance of elderly fallers and non-fallers walking at their preferred velocity","volume":"13","author":"Nelson","year":"1999","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1996.tb00913.x","article-title":"Injurious falls in nonambulatory nursing home residents: A comparative study of circumstances, incidence, and risk factors","volume":"44","author":"Thapa","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/80.9.896","article-title":"Predicting the Probability for Falls in Community-Dwelling Older Adults Using the Timed Up & Go Test","volume":"80","author":"Brauer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, Y., Bae, Y., Cha, B., and Ryu, J. (2022). Deep Learning-Based Subtask Segmentation of Timed Up-and-Go Test Using RGB-D Cameras. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22176323"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.12045","article-title":"The timed up and go test","volume":"210","author":"Browne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1996.tb04068.x","article-title":"The relative importance of strength and balance in chair rise by functionally impaired older individuals","volume":"44","author":"Schenkman","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S117","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(05)80385-6","article-title":"The use of trunk sway variables during the timed get up and go test discriminate between elderly fallers and non-fallers","volume":"21","author":"Nachtegaal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.07.139","article-title":"Timed up and go is a reliable test to assess sitting and walking performance in patients with stroke","volume":"73","author":"Emuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-9457(94)90020-5","article-title":"Sit-to-stand: Functional relationship between upper body and lower limb segments","volume":"13","author":"Shepherd","year":"1994","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2008.01777.x","article-title":"Five times sit to stand is a predictor of recurrent falls in healthy community-living subjects aged 65 and older","volume":"56","author":"Buatois","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2011.04.008","article-title":"Five times sit-to-stand test performance in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"92","author":"Duncan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2020.03.005","article-title":"Five times sit-to-stand following stroke: Relationship with strength and balance","volume":"78","author":"Mentiplay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2013.05.013","article-title":"Falls classification using tri-axial accelerometers during the five-times-sit-to-stand test","volume":"38","author":"Doheny","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Relationship between sit-to-stand (STS) motion characteristics and walking ability in stroke patients","volume":"53","author":"Maeda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2020.07.073","article-title":"The sit to stand to sit postural transition variability in the five time sit to stand test in older people with different fall histories","volume":"81","author":"Ghahramani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/45.1.34","article-title":"Walking Aid","volume":"45","author":"Fabbro","year":"1965","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chugo, D., Morita, Y., Sakaida, Y., Yokota, S., Kobayashi, H., Hashimoto, H., and Takase, K. (2012, January 9\u201313). Standing assistance control using a physical strength of a patient with load estimation. Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2012.6343759"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Tilley, A.R., and Associates, H.D. (2001). The Measure of Man and Woman: Human Factors in Design, John Wiley & Sons Inc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leone, A., Rescio, G., Manni, A., Siciliano, P., and Caroppo, A. (2022). Comparative Analysis of Supervised Classifiers for the Evaluation of Sarcopenia Using a sEMG-Based Platform. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072721"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/1837\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:26:26Z","timestamp":1760120786000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/4\/1837"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s23041837"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23041837","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]]}}}