{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T19:31:45Z","timestamp":1773343905058,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]],"date-time":"2024-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper explores the development of 3D-printed self-sensing Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) by incorporating graphite (G) powder, milled carbon microfiber (MCMF), and chopped carbon microfiber (CCMF) as additives into the UHPC matrix to enhance piezoresistive properties while maintaining workability for 3D printing. Percolation curves were established to identify optimal filler inclusion levels, and a series of compressive tests, including quasi-static cyclic, dynamic cyclic, and monotonic compressive loading, were conducted to evaluate the piezoresistive and mechanical performance of 29 different mix designs. It was found that incorporating G powder improved the conductivity of the UHPC but decreased compressive strength for both mold-cast and 3D-printed specimens. However, incorporating either MCMF or CCMF into the UHPC resulted in the maximum 9.8% and 19.2% increase in compressive strength and Young\u2019s modulus, respectively, compared to the plain UHPC. The hybrid combination of MCMF and CCMF showed particularly effective in enhancing sensing performance, achieving strain linearity over 600 \u03bc\u03b5. The best-preforming specimens (3G250M250CCMF) were fabricated using 3 wt% of G, 0.25 wt% of MCMF, and 0.25 wt% of CCMF, yielding a maximum strain gauge factor of 540, a resolution of 68 \u03bc\u03b5, and an accuracy of 4.5 \u03bc\u03b5 under axial compression. The 3D-printed version of the best-performing specimens exhibited slightly diminished piezoresistive and mechanical behaviors compared to their mold-cast counterparts, yielding a maximum strain gauge factor of 410, a resolution of 99 \u03bc\u03b5, and an accuracy of 8.6 \u03bc\u03b5.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24237638","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,3]],"date-time":"2024-12-03T11:48:56Z","timestamp":1733226536000},"page":"7638","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Investigation of 3D Printed Self-Sensing UHPC Composites Using Graphite and Hybrid Carbon Microfibers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3057-522X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Han","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0601-9664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon","family":"Laflamme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1024-7835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"given":"Ping","family":"Lyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9941-8156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sri","family":"Sritharan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7466-3451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kejin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.111192","article-title":"Comprehensive Review of 3D Printed Cementitious Composites with Carbon Inclusions: Current Status and Perspective for Self-Sensing Capabilities","volume":"98","author":"Sousa","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bekzhanova, Z., Memon, S.A., and Kim, J.R. (2021). Self-Sensing Cementitious Composites: Review and Perspective. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11092355"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241101","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5128242","article-title":"Development of sensing concrete: Principles, properties and its applications","volume":"126","author":"Ding","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032003","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ad092d","article-title":"Self-sensing ultra-high performance concrete: A review","volume":"35","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.09.048","article-title":"Intrinsic self-sensing concrete and structures: A review","volume":"59","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2014.12.002","article-title":"Review of nanocarbon-engineered multifunctional cementitious composites","volume":"70","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramachandran, K., Vijayan, P., Murali, G., and Vatin, N.I. (2022). A Review on Principles, Theories and Materials for Self Sensing Concrete for Structural Applications. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15113831"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Meyer, C. (2002). Concrete and Sustainable Development. SP-206: Concrete: Material Science to Application\u2014A Tribute to Surendra P. Shah, American Concrete Institute."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.05.002","article-title":"Concrete material science: Past, present, and future innovations","volume":"112","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122899","article-title":"Advanced smart concrete\u2014A review of current progress, benefits and challenges","volume":"274","author":"Makul","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"e00155","article-title":"Modern sustainable cement and concrete composites: Review of current status, challenges and guidelines","volume":"25","author":"Makul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Richard, P., and Cheyrezy, M.H. (1994). Reactive Powder Concretes With High Ductility and 200\u2013800 Mpa Compressive Strength. SP-144: Concrete Technology: Past, Present, and Future, American Concrete Institute."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"e00559","article-title":"Ultra-high-performance concrete: Constituents, mechanical properties, applications and current challenges","volume":"15","author":"Akhnoukh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, R., Qiang, Y., Ahmad, J., Vatin, N.I., and El-Shorbagy, M.A. (2022). Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC): A State-of-the-Art Review. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15124131"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdal, S., Mansour, W., Agwa, I., Nasr, M., Abadel, A., Onuralp \u00d6zk\u0131l\u0131\u00e7, Y., and Akeed, M.H. (2023). Application of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete in Bridge Engineering: Current Status, Limitations, Challenges, and Future Prospects. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13010185"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132477","article-title":"Sustainable development of eco-friendly ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC): Cost, carbon emission, and structural ductility","volume":"398","author":"Amran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2024.105449","article-title":"A comprehensive review of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) behaviour under blast loads","volume":"148","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.2749\/101686613X13627347100437","article-title":"Rehabilitation and Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete","volume":"23","year":"2013","journal-title":"Struct. Eng. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2016.03.032","article-title":"Enhancing the flexural performance of ultra-high-performance concrete using long steel fibers","volume":"147","author":"Yoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2020.12.051","article-title":"UHPC evolution, development, and utilization in construction: A review","volume":"10","author":"Bajaber","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"03121001","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0003073","article-title":"A Review of Developments and Challenges for UHPC in Structural Engineering: Behavior, Analysis, and Design","volume":"147","author":"Hung","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.104118","article-title":"Microstructure of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)\u2014A review study","volume":"50","author":"Bahmani","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2024.105466","article-title":"Development of self-sensing ultra-high-performance concrete using hybrid carbon black and carbon nanofibers","volume":"148","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.071","article-title":"Hybrid effects of steel fiber and carbon nanotube on self-sensing capability of ultra-high-performance concrete","volume":"185","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birgin, H.B., D\u2019Alessandro, A., Laflamme, S., and Ubertini, F. (2021). Hybrid Carbon Microfibers-Graphite Fillers for Piezoresistive Cementitious Composites. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020518"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.105350","article-title":"A review of self-sensing ultra-high performance concrete: Towards next-generation smart structural materials","volume":"145","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2024.100342","article-title":"Effect of steel slag on the mechanical properties and self-sensing capability of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)","volume":"17","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106713","article-title":"Effect of carbon nanotube and graphite nanoplatelet on composition, structure, and nano-mechanical properties of C-S-H in UHPC","volume":"154","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2023.114616","article-title":"Improvement of the stress sensing ability of ultra-high-performance concrete using short steel fibers and steel slag aggregates under high compression","volume":"362","author":"Le","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.134991","article-title":"Synergistic effects of steel fibers and steel wires on uniaxial tensile mechanical and self-sensing properties of UHPC","volume":"416","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.138108","article-title":"Mechanical properties and failure mechanism of 3D printing ultra-high performance concrete","volume":"447","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"103032","article-title":"Microstructure and mechanical behaviour of 3D printed ultra-high performance concrete after elevated temperatures","volume":"58","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.04.002","article-title":"Potential benefits of digital fabrication for complex structures: Environmental assessment of a robotically fabricated concrete wall","volume":"154","author":"Hack","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.06.001","article-title":"Vision of 3D printing with concrete\u2014Technical, economic and environmental potentials","volume":"112","author":"Lesage","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.105863","article-title":"A review of \u201c3D concrete printing\u201d: Materials and process characterization, economic considerations and environmental sustainability","volume":"66","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2018.03.020","article-title":"Effect of characteristics of assembly unit of CNT\/NCB composite fillers on properties of smart cement-based materials","volume":"109","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-022-01943-7","article-title":"Steel fiber orientational distribution and effects on 3D printed concrete with coarse aggregate","volume":"55","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, J.G., Huang, B.T., and Shah, S.P. (2021). Recent Advances in Strain-Hardening UHPC with Synthetic Fibers. J. Compos. Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs5100283"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9891619","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/9891619","article-title":"Effect of Combining Fiber and Textile Reinforcement on the Flexural Behavior of UHPC Plates","volume":"2020","author":"Ofner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lian, J., Hu, C., Fu, T., and Wang, Y. (2021). Review of Self-sensing Capability of Ultra-high Performance Concrete. Front. Mater., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2021.746022"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085105","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ad41f9","article-title":"3D printed self-sensing cementitious composites using graphite and carbon microfibers","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, T., and Wang, Q. (2021). Effects of Graphite on Electrically Conductive Cementitious Composite Properties: A Review. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14174798"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birgin, H.B., D\u2019Alessandro, A., Meoni, A., and Ubertini, F. (2023). Self-Sensing Eco-Earth Composite with Carbon Microfibers for Sustainable Smart Buildings. J. Compos. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs7020063"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Graybeal, B. (2006). Material Property Characterization of Ultra-High Performance Concrete, U.S. Department of Transportation. Report No. FHWA-HRT-06-103."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Carbon, S. (2023, October 04). Sigrafil Short Carbon Fibers. Available online: https:\/\/www.sglcarbon.com\/en\/markets-solutions\/material\/sigrafil-short-carbon-fibers."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1680\/macr.1981.33.114.48","article-title":"The conduction of electricity through concrete","volume":"33","author":"Whittington","year":"1981","journal-title":"Mag. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coco.2020.03.005","article-title":"Piezoresistive properties of cement composites with expanded graphite","volume":"19","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Commun."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2009.03.006","article-title":"Microstructure and macroscopic properties of hybrid carbon nanofiber\/silica fume cement composites","volume":"69","author":"Sanchez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2537","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10514-4","article-title":"Modeling the electrical resistivity of polymer composites with segregated structures","volume":"10","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2019.107437","article-title":"A state-of-the-art on self-sensing concrete: Materials, fabrication and properties","volume":"177","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2006.09.031","article-title":"Double percolation in the electrical conduction in carbon fiber reinforced cement-based materials","volume":"45","author":"Wen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.11.051","article-title":"Concrete with triphasic conductive materials for self-monitoring of cracking development subjected to flexure","volume":"138","author":"Ding","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123895","article-title":"Experimental investigation of multiscale hybrid fibres on the mechanical properties of high-performance concrete","volume":"299","author":"Junwei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131495","article-title":"Intelligent design and manufacturing of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)\u2014A review","volume":"385","author":"Fan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000435","article-title":"Fabrication of Piezoresistive CNT\/CNF Cementitious Composites with Superplasticizer as Dispersant","volume":"24","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2003.09.003","article-title":"Electric polarization and depolarization in cement-based materials, studied by apparent electrical resistance measurement","volume":"34","author":"Cao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2014.06.007","article-title":"Improved piezoresistive sensitivity and stability of CNT\/cement mortar composites with low water\u2013binder ratio","volume":"116","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2017). Standard Practice for Fabricating and Testing Specimens of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (Standard No. ASTM C1856\/C1856M-17)."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104243","article-title":"Properties and microstructure of extrusion-based 3D printing mortar containing a highly flowable, rapid set grout","volume":"124","author":"Wi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127007","article-title":"Electrical resistance and capacitance responses of smart ultra-high performance concrete with compressive strain by DC and AC measurements","volume":"327","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(02)00789-5","article-title":"Cement-based materials for stress sensing by dielectric measurement","volume":"32","author":"Wen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1149\/1.3532309","article-title":"Dielectric and Electrochemical Properties of Sustainable Concrete","volume":"29","author":"Flores","year":"2010","journal-title":"ECS Trans."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(00)00338-0","article-title":"A study of piezoelectric properties of carbon fiber reinforced concrete and plain cement paste during dynamic loading","volume":"30","author":"Sun","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1106\/104538902031861","article-title":"Piezoresistive Cement-Based Materials for Strain Sensing","volume":"13","author":"Chung","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.172","article-title":"Influence of mix design variables on engineering properties of carbon fiber-modified electrically conductive concrete","volume":"152","author":"Sassani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085007","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/26\/8\/085007","article-title":"Two-point concrete resistivity measurements: Interfacial phenomena at the electrode\u2013concrete contact zone","volume":"26","author":"McCarter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2012.12.013","article-title":"Carbon nanotube cement-based transducers for dynamic sensing of strain","volume":"37","author":"Materazzi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.104775","article-title":"Study on self-sensing capabilities of smart cements filled with graphene oxide under dynamic cyclic loading","volume":"58","author":"Suo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2020). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens) (Standard No. ASTM C109\/C109M-20)."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109742","article-title":"Synergistic effect of microfibers and oriented steel fibers on mechanical properties of UHPC","volume":"91","author":"Ji","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04014186","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001151","article-title":"Dynamic Characterization of a Soft Elastomeric Capacitor for Structural Health Monitoring","volume":"141","author":"Laflamme","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495302","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/27\/49\/495302","article-title":"Shear induced alignment of short nanofibers in 3D printed polymer composites","volume":"27","author":"Yunus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/23\/7638\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:42:36Z","timestamp":1760114556000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/23\/7638"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s24237638"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24237638","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]]}}}