{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T08:15:29Z","timestamp":1776932129110,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]],"date-time":"2025-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759104000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["2349792"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2349792"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["2431765"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2431765"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["FIS00001797"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FIS00001797"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2014NextGenerationEU","award":["ECS00000041\u2014VITALITY"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ECS00000041\u2014VITALITY"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The automation of concrete constructions through 3D printing (3DP) has been increasingly developed and adopted in civil engineering due to its promising advantages over traditional construction methods. However, widespread implementation is hindered by uncertainties in quality control, homogeneity, and interlayer bonding, as well as the uniqueness of each printed component. Building upon our prior work in developing 3D-printable self-sensing cementitious materials by incorporating graphite powder and carbon microfibers into a cementitious matrix to enhance its piezoresistive properties, this study aims at enabling condition assessment of cementitious 3DP by integrating the self-sensing materials as sensing nodes within conventional components. Three different 3D-printed strip patterns, consisting of one, two, and three strip lines that mimic the pattern used in fabricating foil strain gauges were investigated as conductive electrode designs to impart strain sensing capabilities, and characterized from a series of quasi-static and dynamic tests. Results demonstrate that the three-strip design yielded the highest sensitivity (\u03bbstat of 669, \u03bbdyn of 630), whereas the two-strip design produced the highest signal quality (SNRstat = 9.5 dB, SNRdyn = 10.8 dB). These findings confirm the feasibility of integrating 3D-printed self-sensing cementitious materials through hybrid manufacturing, enabling monitoring of print quality, detection of load path changes, and identification of potential defects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25196005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]],"date-time":"2025-09-29T14:01:39Z","timestamp":1759154499000},"page":"6005","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Embedment of 3D Printed Self-Sensing Composites for Smart Cementitious Components"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3057-522X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Han","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010, USA"}]},{"given":"Israel","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti, 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0601-9664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon","family":"Laflamme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5742-9076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shelby E.","family":"Doyle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Architecture, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2928-1961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonella","family":"D\u2019Alessandro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti, 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5044-8482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Ubertini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti, 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1334","article-title":"Constraints and limitations of concrete 3D printing in architecture","volume":"20","author":"Ko","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Eng. Des. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104115","article-title":"Large-scale 3D printing concrete technology: Current status and future opportunities","volume":"122","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. 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