{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T13:57:12Z","timestamp":1771336632212,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":133,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000921","name":"COST","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000921","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDP\/06121\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/06121\/2025"]}]},{"name":"ATMOBE project","award":["PID2022-142366OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2022-142366OB-I00"]}]},{"name":"ERDF A way of making Europe","award":["MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/5011000-1103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/5011000-1103"]}]},{"name":"GVA","award":["CIPROM\/2022\/37"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CIPROM\/2022\/37"]}]},{"name":"University of Modena and Reggio Emilia and by Fondazione di Modena","award":["CUP E95F21002900007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP E95F21002900007"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MECI","award":["UID\/00511\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/00511\/2025"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MECI","award":["UID\/PRR\/00511\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/PRR\/00511\/2025"]}]},{"name":"ALiCE","award":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["2023.15742.PEX"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023.15742.PEX"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000077"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["2022.05461.CEECIND\/CP1733\/CT0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.05461.CEECIND\/CP1733\/CT0011"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent decades, significant efforts have been devoted to constructing energy-efficient buildings, providing comfortable indoor environments. However, measures such as enhanced airtightness, while reducing infiltration through the building envelope, might consequently reduce natural ventilation. This reduction is a critical concern because natural ventilation is an essential factor in controlling indoor air quality (IAQ), and its diminution could therefore worsen IAQ. Sick building syndrome has emerged as a term used to describe health hazards linked to the time spent indoors but with no particular cause. Since people spend most of their time indoors, the demand for continuous and real-time IAQ management to reduce human exposure to pollutants has increased considerably. In this context, low-cost sensors (LCS) for IAQ monitoring have become popular, driven by recent technological advancements and increased awareness regarding indoor air pollution and its negative health impacts. Although LCS do not meet the performance requirements of reference and regulatory equipment, they provide informative measurements, offering high-resolution monitoring, emission source identification, exposure mitigation, real-time IAQ assessment, and energy efficiency management. This perspective article proposes a general model for LCS systems (and subsystems) implementation and presents a prospective analysis of their strengths and limitations for IAQ management, reviews the literature regarding sensor system technologies, and offers design recommendations. It provides valuable insights for researchers and practitioners in the field of IAQ and discusses future trends.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25247567","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T16:19:02Z","timestamp":1765556342000},"page":"7567","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Low-Cost Sensor Systems and IoT Technologies for Indoor Air Quality Monitoring: Instrumentation, Models, Implementation, and Perspectives for Validation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6944-7757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00e9rgio Ivan","family":"Lopes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ADiT-LAB\u2014Applied Digital Transformation Laboratory, Polytechnic University of Viana Do Castelo, 4900-347 Viana Do Castelo, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7716-5522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cezary","family":"Or\u0142owski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IBM Centre for Advanced Studies, Faculty of Computer Science and New Technologies, WSB University in Gdansk, 80-266 Gdansk, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4163-0936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro T. B. S.","family":"Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEPABE, ALiCE, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1033-5985","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kostas","family":"Karatzas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Informatics Research Group, School of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1867-1879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guillermo","family":"Villena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Wuppertal, 42097 Wuppertal, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9844-2063","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Saffell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NosmoTech Ltd., Cambridge CB3 0AZ, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5834-6571","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gon\u00e7alo","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Technology and Management School of Oliveira Do Hospital, Rua General Santos Costa, 3400-124 Oliveira do Hospital, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4139-673X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofia I. V.","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEPABE, ALiCE, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7650-6719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabian","family":"Lenartz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISSEP\u2014Institut Scientifique de Service Public, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4324-449X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Bergmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISSEP\u2014Institut Scientifique de Service Public, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1310-5296","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Bigi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering \u2018Enzo Ferrari\u2019, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy"}]},{"given":"Tam\u00e1s","family":"Pflanzner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Software Engineering, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6136-3660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mila","family":"R\u00f3denas Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EUPHORE Labs., Fundaci\u00f3n Centro de Estudios Ambientales Del Mediterr\u00e1neo (CEAM), 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500165","article-title":"The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants","volume":"11","author":"Klepeis","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. 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