{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T15:22:34Z","timestamp":1774020154264,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767312000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024.03984.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024.03984.BD"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UI\/BD\/154813\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UI\/BD\/154813\/2023"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>CubeSats are a fundamental tool of space exploration, allowing for the testing of novel ideas that can be upscaled to more efficient satellite systems. This work presents the development and characterisation of an additively manufactured aluminium mechanism designed to enable the self-functionalisation of CubeSat structures through material extrusion metal additive manufacturing, as a foundation for sensor integration. A space-grade AlSi7Mg alloy was selected and prepared as a filament to print a fully functional hinge geometry, aiming to evaluate the feasibility of producing movable metallic components using a low-cost and sustainable extrusion-based process. Produced parts were subjected to debinding and vacuum sintering, achieving a densification above 85% and an average hardness of 52.2 HV. Further characterisation, including micro-computed tomography, X-ray diffraction and dynamic mechanical analysis, was used to assess the microstructural integrity, present phase, and mechanical behaviour of the sintered components. The designed shrinkage-compensated hinge mechanism preserved its rotational mobility after sintering, validating the mechanical inter-locking strategy and the design for additive manufacturing methodology used. The results demonstrate that material extrusion enables the fabrication of lightweight, functional, and integrated aluminium mechanisms suitable for sensor incorporation and actuation in small satellite systems. This proof-of-concept highlights material extrusion as a sustainable and economically viable route for developing intelligent aero-space structures, paving the way for future adaptive and sensor-integrated CubeSat subsystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26010281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T09:56:23Z","timestamp":1767347783000},"page":"281","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Enabling Sensor-Integrated and Sustainable Aerospace Structures Through Additively Manufactured Aluminium Mechanisms for CubeSats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5575-2387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernardo","family":"Alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6063-0839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7187-5609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Coelho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8078-6530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Gat\u00f5es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1513-4007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Cacho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2471-1125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3164-6342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00edtor Miguel","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7616-6793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patr\u00edcia","family":"Freitas Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE-ARISE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouzoukis, K.-P., Moraitis, G., Kostopoulos, V., and Lappas, V. (2025). An Overview of CubeSat Missions and Applications. Aerospace, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace12060550"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.61359\/11.2106-2501","article-title":"Innovative Power Strategies for CubeSats: Enhancing Solar Energy Capture and Efficient Storage Solutions","volume":"4","author":"Vishnuprakash","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acceleron Aerosp. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capovilla, G., Cestino, E., and Reyneri, L. (2023). Modular Multifunctional Composite Structure for CubeSat Applications: Embedded Battery Prototype Modal Analysis. Aerospace, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace10121009"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alnaqbi, S., Darfilal, D., and Swei, S.S.M. (2024). Propulsion Technologies for CubeSats: Review. Aerospace, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace11070502"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1080\/17452759.2020.1779999","article-title":"Laser Powder Bed Fusion for Metal Additive Manufacturing: Perspectives on Recent Developments","volume":"15","author":"Sing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virtual Phys. Prototyp."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2021.110008","article-title":"Metal Additive Manufacturing in Aerospace: A Review","volume":"209","author":"Gradl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boschetto, A., Bottini, L., Macera, L., and Vatanparast, S. (2023). Additive Manufacturing for Lightweighting Satellite Platform. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13052809"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chia, A., Prabhu, V., Gan, A.Z., Puah, M., Lek, V., Kiong, T.W., and Thow, V.S. (2022). Development of a Proof-of-Concept Space Propulsion System for Nano-Satellite Applications Using Additive Manufacturing. Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Space Educational Activities, Barcelona, Spain, 27\u201329 April 2022, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya.","DOI":"10.5821\/conference-9788419184405.101"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hallibert, P., Hull, T.B., and Kim, D. (2025). Additive Manufacturing in Aluminium of a Primary Mirror for a CubeSat Application: Manufacture, Testing, and Evaluation. Proceedings of the Astronomical Optics: Design, Manufacture, and Test of Space and Ground Systems, San Diego, CA, USA, 4\u20137 August 2025, SPIE."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Presciutti, A., Gebennini, E., Liberti, F., Nanni, F., and Bragaglia, M. (2023). Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of SLS and MFFF Additive Manufacturing Techniques for the Production of a Metal Specimen. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17010078"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2023.01.035","article-title":"Corrosion and Material Properties of 316L Stainless Steel Produced by Material Extrusion Technology","volume":"88","author":"Jansa","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2023.110915","article-title":"Filament Fabrication and Subsequent Additive Manufacturing, Debinding, and Sintering for Extrusion-Based Metal Additive Manufacturing and Their Applications: A Review","volume":"264","author":"Bankapalli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Compos. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacob, J., Pejak Simunec, D., Kandjani, A.E.Z., Trinchi, A., and Sola, A. (2024). A Review of Fused Filament Fabrication of Metal Parts (Metal FFF): Current Developments and Future Challenges. Technologies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/technologies12120267"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, B., Sousa, R., Coelho, R., Oliveira, G., Cacho, L., Gat\u00f5es, D., Teixeira, R., and Freitas Rodrigues, P. (2025). Integration of Shape Memory Alloy Actuators into Sintered Aluminum Structures via Material Extrusion for Aerospace Applications. Actuators, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/act14070305"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathesius, M.B., Kozak, E., Scott-Emuakpor, O., and Siddiqui, S.F. (2025). Investigating the Viability of Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Inconel 718 for Fatigue Driven Applications. Proceedings of the AIAA SCITECH 2025 Forum, Orlando, FL, USA, 6\u201310 January 2025, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2025-1365"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2024.147270","article-title":"Supportless Lattice Structure of 316L Stainless Steel Fabricated by Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing: Effect of Relative Density on Physical, Microstructural and Mechanical Behaviour","volume":"915","author":"Parsompech","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2022.09.032","article-title":"Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing Technologies: State of the Art and Future Perspectives","volume":"83","author":"Yardley","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Cappelletti, C., Battistini, S., and Malphrus, B.K. (2021). Cubesat Handbook, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6205","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-022-09127-x","article-title":"Microstructural and Mechanical Aspects of AlSi7Mg0.6 Alloy Related to Scanning Strategies in L-PBF","volume":"120","author":"Yadav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tonelli, L., Liverani, E., Di Egidio, G., Fortunato, A., Morri, A., and Ceschini, L. (2023). On the Role of Microstructure and Defects in the Room and High-Temperature Tensile Behavior of the PBF-LB A357 (AlSi7Mg) Alloy in As-Built and Peak-Aged Conditions. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16072721"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferro, P., Fabrizi, A., Elsayed, H., and Savio, G. (2023). Multi-Material Additive Manufacturing: Creating IN718-AISI 316L Bimetallic Parts by 3D Printing, Debinding, and Sintering. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su151511911"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s12567-020-00328-2","article-title":"Production and Planned In-Orbit Qualification of a Function-Integrated, Additive Manufactured Satellite Sandwich Structure with Embedded Automotive Electronics","volume":"13","author":"Echsel","year":"2021","journal-title":"CEAS Space J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, L., Wang, P., Yang, J., Fan, K., Zhang, H., Zhang, L., Jiang, M., Chen, X., Chen, Z., and Chen, M. (2023). Smart Lattice Structures with Self-Sensing Functionalities via Hybrid Additive Manufacturing Technology. Micromachines, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi15010002"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.21014\/actaimeko.v12i2.1431","article-title":"Development and Verification of Self-Sensing Structures Printed in Additive Manufacturing: A Preliminary Study","volume":"12","author":"Quattrocchi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta IMEKO"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300395","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.202300395","article-title":"Embedding Function within Additively Manufactured Parts: Materials Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"25","author":"Trinchi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, B., Gat\u00f5es, D., Soares, P., Rodrigues, L., and Vieira, M.T. (2023). Material Extrusion: Shaping and Sintering Optimization Through \u00b5-Tomography. Proceedings of the Euro PM2023 Proceedings, Lisbon, Portugal, 1\u20134 October 2023, EPMA.","DOI":"10.59499\/EP235765455"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.04.065","article-title":"Coupling \u03bc-Computed Tomography and Multi-Scale Modelling to Assess the Mechanical Performance of Material Extrusion Metal Components","volume":"30","author":"Cacho","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2021.03.026","article-title":"Factors Affecting Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Additive Manufactured by Metal Fused Filament Fabrication","volume":"386","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakib-Uz-Zaman, C., and Khondoker, M.A.H. (2023). A Review on Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Pure Copper. Metals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/met13050859"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karade, S.R., Siddhartha, S., Gupta, N.K., Karunakaran, K.P., Ganesan, G., and Zeidler, H. (2025). Hybridization in Metal Wire Additive Manufacturing: A Case Study of an Impeller. Metals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/met15010071"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nyamuchiwa, K., Palad, R., Panlican, J., Tian, Y., and Aranas, C. (2023). Recent Progress in Hybrid Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Materials. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13148383"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-021-07188-y","article-title":"Copper Additive Manufacturing Using MIM Feedstock: Adjustment of Printing, Debinding, and Sintering Parameters for Processing Dense and Defectless Parts","volume":"115","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.3390\/applmech5020022","article-title":"Dimensional Accuracy and Mechanical Characterization of Inconel 625 Components in Atomic Diffusion Additive Manufacturing","volume":"5","author":"Rosnitschek","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mondolfo, L.F. (1976). Aluminum\u2013Magnesium, Aluminum\u2013Manganese Alloys. Aluminum Alloys, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-408-70932-3.50404-6"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, A.M.A., Samuel, E., Zedan, Y., Samuel, A.M., Doty, H.W., and Samuel, F.H. (2022). Intermetallics Formation during Solidification of Al-Si-Cu-Mg Cast Alloys. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15041335"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"102145","article-title":"Influence of Alloying Elements on Laser Powder Bed Fusion Processability of Aluminum: A New Insight into the Oxidation Tendency","volume":"46","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2022.143085","article-title":"Selective Laser Melting of Er Modified AlSi7Mg Alloy: Effect of Processing Parameters on Forming Quality, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties","volume":"842","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, H., Zeng, C., Raush, J., Momeni, K., and Guo, S. (2022). Developing Fused Deposition Modeling Additive Manufacturing Processing Strategies for Aluminum Alloy 7075: Sample Preparation and Metallographic Characterization. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15041340"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5477","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-021-05863-5","article-title":"Production of Cylindrical Specimens Based on the Ni-Ti System by Selective Laser Melting from Elementary Powders","volume":"30","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105017","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/10\/105017","article-title":"Design and Development of a Shape Memory Alloy Activated Heat Pipe-Based Thermal Switch","volume":"22","author":"Benafan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Petrozzi-Ilstad, M. (2025). Design Automation of Embedded Air Coils for CubeSat Attitude Control. Proceedings of the Small Satellites Systems and Services Symposium (4S 2024), Palma de Mallorca, Spain, 27\u201331 May 2024, SPIE."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liao, W.-H. (2014). Piezoelectric Assisted Smart Satellite Structure (PEASSS): An Innovative Low Cost Nano-Satellite. Active and Passive Smart Structures and Integrated Systems 2014, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2045002"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/1\/281\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T10:55:13Z","timestamp":1767610513000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/1\/281"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s26010281"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26010281","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]}}}