{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T18:37:48Z","timestamp":1768588668266,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["PRT\/BD\/154386\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRT\/BD\/154386\/2023"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100019186","name":"MIT Portugal Program","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2022 MPP2030-FCT"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022 MPP2030-FCT"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100019186","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES under the R&D Unit Institute","award":["UID\/4029\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/4029\/2025"]}]},{"name":"Associate Laboratory Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems ARISE","award":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of large-scale civil infrastructure is essential to ensure safety, minimise maintenance costs, and support informed decision-making. Unsupervised anomaly detection has emerged as a powerful tool for identifying deviations in structural behaviour without requiring labelled damage data. The study initially reproduces and implements a state-of-the-art methodology that combines local density estimation through the Cumulative Distance Participation Factor (CDPF) with Semi-parametric Extreme Value Theory (SEVT) for thresholding, which serves as an essential baseline reference for establishing normal structural behaviour and for benchmarking the performance of the proposed anomaly detection framework. Using modal frequencies extracted via Stochastic Subspace Identification from the Z24 bridge dataset, the baseline method effectively identifies structural anomalies caused by progressive damage scenarios. However, its performance is constrained when dealing with subtle or non-linear deviations. To address this limitation, we introduce an innovative ensemble anomaly detection framework that integrates two complementary unsupervised methods: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Autoencoder (AE) are dimensionality reduction methods used for anomaly detection. PCA captures linear patterns using variance, while AE learns non-linear representations through data reconstruction. By leveraging the strengths of these techniques, the ensemble achieves improved sensitivity, reliability, and interpretability in anomaly detection. A comprehensive comparison with the baseline approach demonstrates that the proposed ensemble not only captures anomalies more reliably but also provides improved stability to environmental and operational variability. These findings highlight the potential of ensemble-based unsupervised methods for advancing SHM practices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26020561","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T12:04:22Z","timestamp":1768392262000},"page":"561","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Unsupervised Learning-Based Anomaly Detection for Bridge Structural Health Monitoring: Identifying Deviations from Normal Structural Behaviour"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Jabez","family":"Nesackon Abraham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minho, ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Minh Q.","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minho, ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jerusha Samuel","family":"Jayaraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Systems, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1536-2149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose C.","family":"Matos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minho, ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0216-5549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Rosa","family":"Valluzzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Padova, Piazza Capitaniato 7, 35139 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3341-3034","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Son N.","family":"Dang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minho, ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, K., Kong, X., Zhang, J., Hu, J., Li, J., and Tang, H. 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