{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T02:23:08Z","timestamp":1773973388719,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]],"date-time":"2025-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["LA\/P\/0008\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0008\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["UIDP\/50006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/50006\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["UIDB\/50006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50006\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Separations"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gradual increase in water scarcity due to depletion and\/or inadequate use of water resources has affected the automotive sector. In this context, possibilities for water reuse in the pre-treatment tunnel in an automotive painting process were studied and compared with the primary goal of finding the most appropriate and economically viable water recovery solutions, considering a circular economy metric approach. To this end, an experimental campaign of aqueous effluent characterization, with determinations of most relevant chemical and physical parameters, was conducted in a company in the automotive industry sector. To reduce alkalinity and remove surfactants from the effluent of the washing phase, a cation exchange on a weak-acid-based resin was proposed along with a microfiltration membrane system with a recovery efficiency of 88%. The inclusion of subsequent ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis steps proved to be the most suitable for removing salts and biocides from the water of the cooling towers, treating approximately 68% of the water. The techno-economic feasibility was comprehensively evaluated according to the type of treatment used. A cost of EUR 245 thousand was estimated for the treatment of water from the degreasing washing phase (EUR 1.06 per manufactured car), and a cost of EUR 582 thousand was estimated for the treatment of the cooling towers\u2019 water (EUR 2.52 per car). The estimated water income after the treatment systems\u2019 implementation was estimated to be equal to EUR 0.07 per car for the washing stage and EUR 0.13 per car for the cooling towers. Ultimately, this study clearly demonstrated the beneficial contribution of using membrane treatment in the automotive sector\u2019s environmental policy, leading to water reuse and much lower effluent discharge according to the principles of the circular economy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/separations12020030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T06:39:51Z","timestamp":1737959991000},"page":"30","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Techno-Economic and Feasibility Assessment of Membrane-Based Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Automotive Industry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Sara","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA FCT, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"M\u00e1rio","family":"Eus\u00e9bio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA FCT, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9446-0897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svetlozar","family":"Velizarov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA FCT, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.15406\/ijh.2020.04.00250","article-title":"The importance of water and conscious use of water","volume":"4","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1039\/C5EW00159E","article-title":"Membrane materials for water purification: Design, development, and application","volume":"2","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Water Framework Directive, European Commission. Available online: https:\/\/environment.ec.europa.eu\/topics\/water\/water-framework-directive_en."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Implementing Water Economics in the EU Water Framework Directive, OCDE. Available online: https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/en\/publications\/implementing-water-economics-in-the-eu-water-framework-directive_d6abda81-en\/full-report.html."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (2024, November 07). White Paper on Circular Economy. Available online: https:\/\/www.efpia.eu\/media\/htreo44j\/white-paper-on-circular-economy.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). How the EU Wants to Achieve a Circular Economy by 2050?. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/topics\/en\/article\/20210128STO96607\/how-the-eu-wants-to-achieve-a-circular-economy-by-2050."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.134375","article-title":"Toward a circular value chain: Impact of the circular economy on a company\u2019s value chain processes","volume":"378","author":"Eisenreich","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1007\/s43615-022-00165-x","article-title":"Circular Economy of Water: Definition, Strategies and Challenges","volume":"2","author":"Morseletto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Circ. Econ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Smol, M., Duda, J., and Nowak, M. (July, January 30). Business opportunities in water and wastewater sector. Proceedings of the MonGOS International Conference: Water and Sewage in the Circular Economy Model, Cracow, Poland."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Sustainable Development Goals. Available online: https:\/\/www.unglobalcompact.nl\/sustainable-development-goals."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.A. (2023). Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Sustainable Water Resources Management: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su151410940"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Water Sustainability for The Automotive Industry. Available online: https:\/\/www.dupont.com\/knowledge\/water-efficiency-in-the-automotive-industry.html."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Gr\u00e9gorio, C., and Lichtfouse, E. (2018). Green Adsorbents for Pollutant Removal, Springer. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Llopis, A.J. (2015). Advanced Technologies Applied to Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Barcelona]."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Jain, R., Camarillo, M.K., and Stringfellow, W.T. (2014). Drinking Water Security for Engineers, Planners, and Managers, Elsevier. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Gaviria, M.I., Arango, J.P., Barrientos, K., and Jaramillo, M. (2023). Encyclopedia of Sensors and Biosensors, Elsevier. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Krishnakumar, S., Singh, D., Godson, P.S., and Thanga, S.G. (2022). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Springer."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, M., Innocenzi, V., Ayedi, K., Vegli\u00f2, F., and Ippolito, N.M. (2024). Automotive Wastewater Treatment Processes and Technologies: A Review, ACS Publications.","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestwater.4c00301"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1080\/10643380600580011","article-title":"Effluent Organic Matter (EfOM) in Wastewater: Constituents, Effects, and Treatment","volume":"36","author":"Shon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2025, January 11). Ultrafiltration Membranes Drive Innovation in Automotive Water Treatment Systems. Available online: https:\/\/www.marketresearchintellect.com\/blog\/ltrafiltration-membranes-drive-innovation-in-automotive-water-treatment-systems\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Available online: https:\/\/fr.hach.com\/asset-get.download.jsa?id=25593618016."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(1984). Water quality\u2014Determination of nitrite\u2014Molecular absorption spectrometric method (Standard No. ISO 6777:1984)."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Jenkins, P., Southern, T., Truesdale, V., and Jeary, A. (1996). Essential Environmental Science, Methods & Techniques, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Mermet, J.M. (2006). Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry and its Applications, Wiley. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Rice, E.W., Baird, R.B., and Eaton, A.D. (2017). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Water Works Association. [23rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Srivastava, N.T. (2009). Automotive Paints and Coatings, Wiley. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(1980). Water Quality\u2014Determination of the Chemical Oxygen Demand (Standard No. ISO 6060)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). How to Keep Your System in Peak Condition (TSB)?. Available online: https:\/\/membranes.com\/knowledge-center\/technical-service-bulletin-tsb\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Is Dealkalization by Ion Exchange Right for You?. Available online: https:\/\/www.waterworld.com\/residential-commercial\/article\/14308465\/is-dealkalization-by-ion-exchange-right-for-you."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Teller, R. (2024, November 07). Monitoring, Operation and Control of Ion Exchange Plant. Available online: https:\/\/www.soci.org\/~\/media\/Files\/Conference%20Downloads\/2012\/IEX%20Advanced%20Water%20course%20Sept%202012\/Rob_Terrell_monitoring.ashx."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Carbon Dioxide for pH Control. Available online: https:\/\/www.astisensor.com\/Carbon_Dioxide_Versus_Mineral_Acids.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). pH Control Utilizing CO2. Available online: https:\/\/uk.airliquide.com\/solutions\/water-treatment\/ph-control-utilising-co2."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Carbon Dioxide for pH Control, PWTAG Technical Notes. Available online: https:\/\/www.pwtag.org\/carbon-dioxide-for-ph-control-august-2011\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Water Handbook\u2014Ion Exchange & Water Demineralization. Available online: https:\/\/www.watertechnologies.com\/handbook\/chapter-08-ion-exchange#CLASSIFICATIONS%20OF%20ION%20EXCHANGE%20RESINS."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Wiegert, R.E. (1980). Process for Removing Alkalinity and Hardness from Waters. (EP0015098A1)."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2017.11.008","article-title":"Production and performance of activated carbon from rice husks for removal of natural organic matter from water: A review","volume":"129","author":"Menya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemcial Eng. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11269","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120911269","article-title":"Powder Activated Carbon Pretreatment of a Microfiltration Membrane for the Treatment of Surface Water","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Membrane Filtration: Microfiltration. Available online: https:\/\/fctwater.com\/membrane-filtration-microfiltration\/."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winoto, H., Gunawan, D., and Indarto, A. (2020). Efficient Phosphate Recovery from Fertilizer Wastewater Stream Through Simultaneous Ca and F Ions Removal, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-103017-2.00014-3"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrocoagulation Water Treatment. Available online: https:\/\/chemtech-us.com\/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-electrocoagulation-water-treatment\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.2478\/v10026-012-0068-3","article-title":"Performance analysis of cation and anion exchangers in water treatment plant: An industrial case study","volume":"14","author":"Ramzan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pol. J. Chem. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2021.27020","article-title":"Removal of Ca(II) and Mg(II) hardness by ion exchange resins and soda ash for seawater pretreatment to reduce scale formation in evaporators multi-stage flash desalination","volume":"221","author":"Dahmani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Desalination Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5145","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RA09426B","article-title":"An assessment of an ion exchange resin system for the removal and recovery of Ni, Hg, and Cr from wet flue gas desulphurization wastewater\u2014A pilot study","volume":"12","author":"Glamowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012182","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/467\/1\/012182","article-title":"Removal of nickel ions from automobile industry wastewater using ion exchange resin: Characterization and parameter","volume":"467","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.2166\/wpt.2021.072","article-title":"Phosphate removal by Ion exchange in batch mode","volume":"16","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Pract. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zakaria, K.K., Farag, H.A., and El-Gayar, D.A. (2023). Removal of Cu2+, Fe2+ and SO42\u2212 ions from industrial wastewater by ion exchange resins contained in a rotating perforated cylindrical basket of different heights. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-29956-4"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De, C., Li, R., Bian, R., and Li, L. (2017). Contribution of Soluble Minerals in Biochar to Pb2+ Adsorption in Aqueous Solutions. BioResources, 12.","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.12.1.1662-1679"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Surfactants. Available online: https:\/\/www.zonadepinturas.com\/en\/2021010412444\/articles\/paints-and-coatings-1\/surfactants.html."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). V0.1 (PVDF 0.1\u03bcm) Industrial MF Membrane. Available online: https:\/\/synderfiltration.com\/2014\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/V0.1-PVDF-0.1um-Industrial-Specsheet.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zioui, D., Martins, P.M., Aoudjit, L., Salazar, H., and Lanceros-M\u00e9ndez, S. (2023). Wastewater Treatment of Real Effluents by Microfiltration Using Poly (vinylidene fluoride\u2013hexafluoropropylene). Membr. Polym., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15051143"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Sillanpaa, M., and Park, Y. (2023). Natural Organic Matter in Water, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8654","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-1121-9","article-title":"Performance of ceramic ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis membranes in treating car wash wastewater for reuse","volume":"25","author":"Moazzem","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soliman, M., Eljack, F., Kazi, M.K., Almomani, F., Ahmed, E., and Jack, Z.E. (2022). Treatment Technologies for Cooling Water Blowdown: A Critical Review. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14010376"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2020.25639","article-title":"Recovery of cooling tower blowdown water through reverse osmosis (RO): Review of water parameters affecting membrane fouling and pretreatment schemes","volume":"189","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Desalination Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012009","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/186\/3\/012009","article-title":"Application of Ultrafiltration Technology in Water Treatment","volume":"186","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Capillary Ultrafiltration Module. Available online: https:\/\/membranes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/Documents\/Element-Specification-Sheets\/UF-MF\/HYDRAcap-MAX\/HYDRAcap-MAX-40.pdf."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). American Petroleum Institute, API 650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage. Available online: https:\/\/law.resource.org\/pub\/us\/cfr\/ibr\/002\/api.650.2007.pdf."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Resin Types and Production. Available online: https:\/\/www.soci.org\/-\/media\/files\/conference-downloads\/2012\/iex-intro-water-sept-2012\/brian_windsor_resin.ashx."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Clifford, D.A. (2017). Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, American Water Works Association. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Ion-Exchange-Resin-Comparison-Chart. Available online: https:\/\/www.lenntech.com\/Data-sheets\/Ion-Exchange-Resin-Comparison-Chart.pdf."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (Averaged Over Year). Available online: https:\/\/magnehi.folk.ntnu.no\/cepci_2011_py.pdf."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Cost Indices. Available online: https:\/\/toweringskills.com\/financial-analysis\/cost-indices\/."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., and Sinnott, R.K. (1983). Chemical Engineering: An Introduction to Chemical Engineering Design, Elsevier. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Cotter, E. (2023). Net Present Value and Payback Period: An Analysis. [Honors Thesis, Western Michigan University]."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Portugal Interest Rates. Available online: https:\/\/www.ceicdata.com\/pt\/indicator\/portugal\/policy-rate."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Pros and Cons of Using Net Present Value (NPV). Available online: https:\/\/forisk.com\/blog\/2020\/05\/31\/pros-and-cons-of-using-net-present-value-npv\/."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Net Present Value Method. Available online: https:\/\/www.studysmarter.co.uk\/explanations\/business-studies\/managerial-economics\/net-present-value-method\/."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). Disadvantages of Net Present Value (NPV) for Investments. Available online: https:\/\/www.investopedia.com\/ask\/answers\/06\/npvdisadvantages.asp."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2024, November 07). 4 Reasons Why Managers Can Accept Negative NPV Projects. Available online: https:\/\/financestu.com\/negative-npv-project-accepted\/."}],"container-title":["Separations"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2297-8739\/12\/2\/30\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:36:34Z","timestamp":1759919794000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2297-8739\/12\/2\/30"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["separations12020030"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/separations12020030","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-8739"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-8739","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,26]]}}}