{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:44:10Z","timestamp":1760233450480,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,14]],"date-time":"2021-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDP\/ 00713\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/ 00713\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Social Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Society has undergone an entire evolution in the field of criminal penalties, as people want to avoid, or ideally to extinguish, crime and consequent victimization. However, the human nature would hardly allow such utopian society to prevail. Hence, as individuals, we do have codes and bylaws that govern our society. The number of male prisoners is considerably higher in comparison to female prisoners. The aim of the present research is to analyze the sex inequality in the Portuguese criminal justice system, as well as to discuss the following questions: (i) Are men suffering from unjustifiable discrimination by the criminal system? Or, (ii) are there any physical and psychological differences between both sexes? A quantitative and qualitative approach was used. A legal framework was created regarding penalty enforcement, followed by a review of the literature approaching themes of criminology, victimization, and sex inequality. To enrich and empirically support this research, the statistics provided by the Directorate-General for Justice Policy of the Ministry of Portuguese Justice are presented, and a descriptive analysis on the evolution of the number of inmates in Portuguese prisons and juveniles detained in educational centers, between 2010 and 2019 was performed. Implications of this study are is discussed to highlight mediation in criminal cases as a neutral future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci10010019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]],"date-time":"2021-01-15T01:33:29Z","timestamp":1610674409000},"page":"19","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Sustainability of the Portuguese Prison System: A Criminal Justice System in Masculine Form?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7374-3847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra Patr\u00edcia Marques","family":"Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Public Administration and Public Policies, Institute of Social and Political Sciences, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3111-9843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Miguel Alves Ribeiro","family":"Correia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Public Administration and Public Policies, Institute of Social and Political Sciences, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acale S\u00e1nchez, Mar\u00eda (2019). Penal and Custodial Control of Female Criminality in Spain from a Gender Perspective. Social Sciences, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci8020052"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Adler, Freda (1975). Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Amaro, Fausto, and Costa, D\u00e1lia (2019). Criminologia e Reinser\u00e7\u00e3o Social, Editor Pactor."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Assembly of the Portuguese Republic (2020, December 06). Law 21\/2007 of 12 June. Available online: http:\/\/www.pgdlisboa.pt\/leis\/lei_mostra_articulado.php?nid=1459&tabela=leis&ficha=1&pagina=1."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1002\/ab.21652","article-title":"The Impact of Parenthood on Physical Aggression: Evidence from Criminal Data","volume":"42","author":"Boothroyd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aggressive Behavior"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1177\/0193841X10362162","article-title":"Validation of the Crime and Violence Scale (CVS) Against the Rasch Measurement Model Including Differences by Sex, Race, and Age","volume":"34","author":"Conrad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Evaluation Review"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Constitution of the Portuguese Republic (2020, November 06). (LAST Revision). Available online: https:\/\/dre.pt\/legislacao-consolidada\/-\/lc\/34520775\/view."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Correia, Pedro Miguel Alves Ribeiro, Mendes, Ireneu Oliveira, Pereira, Sandra Patr\u00edcia Marques, and Subtil, In\u00eas (2020a). The Combat against COVID-19 in Portugal: How State Measures and Data Availability Reinforce Some Organizational Values and Contribute to the Sustainability of the National Health System. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12187513"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Correia, Pedro Miguel Alves Ribeiro, Mendes, Ireneu Oliveira, Pereira, Sandra Patr\u00edcia Marques, and Subtil, In\u00eas (2020b). The Combat against COVID-19 in Portugal, Part II: How Governance Reinforces Some Organizational Values and Contributes to the Sustainability of Crisis Management. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12208715"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Council of Europe (2020, December 06). Recommendation No. R (90) 4 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the Elimination of Sexism from Language. Available online: https:\/\/rm.coe.int\/1680505480."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1080\/07418829400092421","article-title":"Social support as an organizing concept for criminology: Presidential address to the academy of criminal justice sciences\u2019","volume":"11","author":"Cullen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Justice Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2020, November 30). DGPJ\u2014Directorate-General for Justice Policy, Available online: https:\/\/estatisticas.justica.gov.pt\/sites\/siej\/pt-pt\/Destaques\/20200529_D69_ReclusosEJovensInternados_2010-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"European Parliament, and Council of the European Union (2020, December 06). Directive 2012\/29\/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 Establishing Minimum Standards on the Rights, Support and Protection of Victims of Crime, and Replacing Council Framework Decision 2001\/220\/JHA. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/en\/ALL\/?uri=CELEX:32012L0029."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"EUROSTAT (2020, November 30). Accidents at Work Statistics: Statistics Explained. Available online: http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/statistics_explained\/index.php\/Accidents_at_work_statistics."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2016.11.004","article-title":"Systematic reviews of explanatory risk factors for violence, offending, and delinquency","volume":"33","author":"Farrington","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aggressive Behavior"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1080\/10911359.2016.1273811","article-title":"Comprehensive assessment of youth violence in five Caribbean countries: Sex and age differences","volume":"27","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.11.034","article-title":"Male sex hormones and criminal behavior: The predictive power of a two-factor model of organizational androgen exposure","volume":"108","author":"Hoskin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Fetal testosterone and criminality: Test of evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory","volume":"53","author":"Hoskin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"INE\u2014Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica\u2014The National Statistical Institute of Portugal (2020, November 30). Causas de Morte 2016. Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica, I.P.\u2014The National Statistical Institute of Portugal Lisbon. Available online: https:\/\/www.ine.pt\/xportal\/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpub_boui=320385399&PUBLICACOESmodo=2."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"INE\u2014Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica\u2014The National Statistical Institute of Portugal (2020, November 30). Causas de Morte 2017. Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica, I.P.\u2014The National Statistical Institute of Portugal Lisbon. Available online: https:\/\/www.ine.pt\/xportal\/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpub_boui=358633033&PUBLICACOESmodo=2."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jochnowitz, Leona Deborah (2020, November 30). Capital Jurors\u2019 Receptivity to Mental Mitigation for Female Defendants with Non-Stereotypic Gender Behavior (Kentucky, Missouri). Available online: https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.2890559.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2890559"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1177\/1748895818794237","article-title":"Historical criminology and the explanatory power of the past","volume":"19","author":"Lawrence","year":"2019","journal-title":"Criminology & Criminal Justice"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025408098028","article-title":"The relationship of aggression and bullying to social preference: Differences in sex and types of aggression","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"International Journal of Behavioral Development"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ministry of Portuguese Justice (2020, November 06). Decree-Law 48\/95 of 15 March. Available online: https:\/\/dre.pt\/web\/guest\/legislacao-consolidada\/-\/lc\/34437675\/view."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soscij.2018.10.010","article-title":"Criminology in the Age of Data Explosions: New Directions","volume":"56","author":"Ozkan","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Social Science Journal"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1177\/1477370818770843","article-title":"Stories of injustice: Towards a narrative victimology","volume":"16","author":"Pemberton","year":"2019","journal-title":"European Journal of Criminology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereia, Sandra Patr\u00edcia Marques, and Correia, Pedro Miguel Alves Ribeiro (2020). Sustainability of Portuguese Courts: Citizen Satisfaction and Loyalty as Key Factors. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su122310163"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1177\/0265407517705492","article-title":"Sex differences in experiences of social support among men and women releasing from prison","volume":"35","author":"Veeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Social and Personal Relationships"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpal.2016.01.001","article-title":"Testosterone and attention deficits as possible mechanisms underlying impaired emotion recognition in intimate partner violence perpetrators","volume":"8","author":"Lila","year":"2016","journal-title":"The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2298\/TEM1504005R","article-title":"Why Victimology Should Stay Positive\u2014The Ongoing Need for Positive Victimology","volume":"18","author":"Ronel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Temida"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1080\/135485099106081","article-title":"Sex differences in stress, satisfaction and mental wellbeing among general practitioners in England","volume":"4","author":"Rout","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychology, Health & Medicine"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1177\/0887403400011002004","article-title":"Is Preferential Treatment of Female Offenders a Thing of the Past? A Multisite Study of Gender, Race, and Imprisonment","volume":"11","author":"Spohn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Criminal Justice Policy Review"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00891.x","article-title":"The Imprisonment Penalty Paid by Young, Unemployed Black and Hispanic Male Offenders","volume":"38","author":"Spohn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"609","article-title":"Rare & Inconsistent: The Death Penalty for Women","volume":"33","author":"Streib","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fordham Urban Law Journal"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2019.01.006","article-title":"Exogenous testosterone and the monoamine-oxidase A polymorphism influence anger, aggression and neural responses to provocation in males","volume":"156","author":"Wagels","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1177\/1741659018760105","article-title":"Victim stories and victim policy: Is there a case for a narrative victimology?","volume":"15","author":"Walklate","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crime Media Culture"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1177\/1748895818812995","article-title":"Historical context and the criminological imagination: Towards a three-dimensional criminology","volume":"19","author":"Yeomans","year":"2019","journal-title":"Criminology & Criminal Justice"}],"container-title":["Social Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0760\/10\/1\/19\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:10:57Z","timestamp":1760159457000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0760\/10\/1\/19"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,14]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["socsci10010019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/socsci10010019","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0760"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-0760"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,14]]}}}