{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T18:43:48Z","timestamp":1776105828042,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]],"date-time":"2024-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721174400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology &amp; Pluriannual Funding Programme for Research Units 2020-2023","award":["UIDP\/00050\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00050\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology &amp; Pluriannual Funding Programme for Research Units 2020-2023","award":["NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000044"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology &amp; Pluriannual Funding Programme for Research Units 2020-2023","award":["NORTE-59-2018- 41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-59-2018- 41"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology &amp; Pluriannual Funding Programme for Research Units 2020-2023","award":["n\u00ba 01\/C05-i02\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\u00ba 01\/C05-i02\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDP\/00050\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00050\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000044"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["NORTE-59-2018- 41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-59-2018- 41"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["n\u00ba 01\/C05-i02\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\u00ba 01\/C05-i02\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Mission Interface Program from the Resilience and Recuperation Plan","award":["UIDP\/00050\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00050\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Mission Interface Program from the Resilience and Recuperation Plan","award":["NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000044"]}]},{"name":"Mission Interface Program from the Resilience and Recuperation Plan","award":["NORTE-59-2018- 41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-59-2018- 41"]}]},{"name":"Mission Interface Program from the Resilience and Recuperation Plan","award":["n\u00ba 01\/C05-i02\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\u00ba 01\/C05-i02\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Social Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence (TFSV) has been a permanent concern in contemporary society. This study aims to provide a global understanding of the TFSV phenomenon in Portuguese context. Using quantitative analyses, the rate and prevalence of victimization, victim characteristics, and technology use were examined. An online questionnaire was completed by 500 people (75.8% female) aged 18\u201370, mostly cisgender (96.2%), and heterosexual (85.8%). The main results point to a high victimization global rate (72%) as well as in the last 12 months (70.8%). There were no significant differences between the sexes except in sexual aggression\/coercion, with more females suffering the more severe type of TFSV. However, the gendering of TFSV emerges with specific behaviors. Females tend to be more sexually harassed, only females report non-consensual sexual experiences with someone they met online, and males tend to report receiving offensive content about their gender\/sexuality. Younger people tend to report a higher rate of victimization. The regression model with only victim characteristics is more predictive of TFSV victimization, with younger and heterosexual victims as significant predictors. This study argues that the culture of harassment is deeply rooted and finds an easy way to be disseminated in the digital world.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci13070372","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]],"date-time":"2024-07-17T12:29:43Z","timestamp":1721219383000},"page":"372","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: Victimization and Risk Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2822-5156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafaela","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Maia\u2014UMAIA, S. Pedro de Avioso, 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Psychology at the University of Porto\u2014CPUP, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5521-8352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helena","family":"Grangeia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Maia\u2014UMAIA, S. Pedro de Avioso, 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"},{"name":"ProChild CoLab Against Poverty and Social Exclusion\u2013Association (ProChild CoLAB), Campus de Couros, 4810-225 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center for Justice and Governance (JusGov), Campus de Gualtar, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2389-605X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anita","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Maia\u2014UMAIA, S. Pedro de Avioso, 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Psychology at the University of Porto\u2014CPUP, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e57811225757","DOI":"10.33448\/rsd-v11i2.25757","article-title":"Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Review of Virtual Violence against Women","volume":"11","author":"Bonfim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research Society and Development"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bailey, Jane, Henry, Nicola, and Flynn, Asher (2021). Technology-Facilitated Violence and Abuse: International Perspectives and Experiences. The Emerald International Handbook of Technology-Facilitated Violence and Abuse, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.","DOI":"10.1108\/9781839828485"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610474","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.610474","article-title":"Abusive Sexting in Adolescence: Prevalence and Characteristics of Abusers and Victims","volume":"12","author":"Barroso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1177\/1557085116654565","article-title":"Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Qualitative Analysis of the Mental Health Effects of Revenge Porn on Female Survivors","volume":"12","author":"Bates","year":"2017","journal-title":"Feminist Criminology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1177\/0044118X11407525","article-title":"Predicting Online Harassment Victimization Among a Juvenile Population","volume":"44","author":"Bossler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Youth and Society"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bozzola, Elena, Spina, Giulia, Agostiniani, Rino, Barni, Sarah, Russo, Rocco, Scarpato, Elena, Mauro, Antonio Di, Stefano, Antonella Vita Di, Caruso, Cinthia, and Corsello, Giovanni (2022). The Use of Social Media in Children and Adolescents: Scoping Review on the Potential Risks. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19169960"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1007\/s10508-021-02226-y","article-title":"Examining the Gendered Impacts of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Mixed Methods Approach","volume":"51","author":"Champion","year":"2022","journal-title":"Archives of Sexual Behavior"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Citron, Danielle, and Franks, Mary Anne (2024, July 11). Criminalizing Revenge Porn. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu\/fac_pubs\/1420\/."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1080\/03906701.2022.2133404","article-title":"Cyberviolence and the Digital Experience: Reflections on a Problematic Issue for Youth","volume":"32","author":"Crespi","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Review of Sociology"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"171","article-title":"Cyber-Sexual Violence and Negative Emotional States among Women in a Canadian University","volume":"12","author":"Cripps","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Cyber Criminology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fielding, Nigel G., Lee, Raymond M., and Blank, Grant (2017). The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods, SAGE. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.4135\/9781473957992"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Franks, Mary Anne (2024, July 11). \u2018Revenge Porn\u2019 Reform: A View from the Front Lines. Available online: https:\/\/repository.law.miami.edu\/fac_articles."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1080\/15564886.2016.1268987","article-title":"Persistent Harassment: Targets and Perpetrators Among Young Adults","volume":"13","author":"Grangeia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Victims and Offenders"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1932","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801219863881","article-title":"Image-Based Sexual Abuse: Online Distribution Channels and Illicit Communities of Support","volume":"25","author":"Henry","year":"2019","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henry, Nicola, Flynn, Asher, and Powell, Anastasia (2024, July 11). Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice. Image-Based Sexual Abuse: Victims and Perpetrators, Available online: https:\/\/www.aic.gov.au\/sites\/default\/files\/2020-05\/imagebased_sexual_abuse_victims_and_perpetrators.pdf.","DOI":"10.52922\/ti09975"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1177\/10778012221114918","article-title":"Image-Based Sexual Abuse as a Means of Coercive Control: Victim-Survivor Experiences","volume":"29","author":"Henry","year":"2023","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/01639620701876577","article-title":"Examining the Applicability of Lifestyle-Routine Activities Theory for Cybercrime Victimization","volume":"30","author":"Holt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Deviant Behavior"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Interven\u00e7\u00e3o L\u00e9sbica, Gay, Bissexual, Trans e Intersexo (ILGA) (2024, July 11). Relat\u00f3rio Anual 2019. Discrimina\u00e7\u00e3o contra pessoas LGBTI+. ILGA Portugal. Available online: https:\/\/ilga-portugal.pt\/ficheiros\/pdfs\/observatorio\/ILGA_Relatorio_Discriminacao_2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/13552600.2022.2032430","article-title":"From Myth to Reality: Sexual Image Abuse Myth Acceptance, the Dark Tetrad, and Non-Consensual Intimate Image Dissemination Proclivity","volume":"29","author":"Karasavva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Sexual Aggression"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machimbarrena, Juan M., Calvete, Esther, Fern\u00e1ndez-Gonz\u00e1lez, Liria, \u00c1lvarez-Bard\u00f3n, Aitor, \u00c1lvarez-Fern\u00e1ndez, Lourdes, and Gonz\u00e1lez-Cabrera, Joaqu\u00edn (2018). Internet Risks: An Overview of Victimization in Cyberbullying, Cyber Dating Abuse, Sexting, Online Grooming and Problematic Internet Use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15112471"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1093\/ojls\/gqw033","article-title":"Image-Based Sexual Abuse","volume":"37","author":"McGlynn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oxford Journal of Legal Studies"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838020958057","article-title":"The Prevalence of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review","volume":"23","author":"Patel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trauma, Violence, and Abuse"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.03.039","article-title":"Cyber-Harassment Victimization in Portugal: Prevalence, Fear and Help-Seeking among Adolescents","volume":"62","author":"Pereira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Pew Research Center (2024, July 11). Social Media Fact Sheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/fact-sheet\/social-media\/."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Pew Research Center (2024, July 11). The State of Online Harassment. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2021\/01\/13\/the-state-of-online-harassment\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ponte, Cristina, and Batista, Susana (2024, July 11). EU Kids Online Portugal. Usos, Compet\u00eancias, Riscos e Media\u00e7\u00f5es Da Internet Reportados Por Crian\u00e7as e Jovens (9\u201317 Anos), Available online: https:\/\/www.cnpdpcj.gov.pt\/documents\/10182\/14804\/EU+Kids+Online+Portugal\/2c703971-a675-4f8a-9ae6-3b7cbb38aa66."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1375\/acri.43.1.76","article-title":"Configuring Consent: Emerging Technologies, Unauthorised Sexual Images and Sexual Assault","volume":"43","author":"Powell","year":"2010","journal-title":"The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1177\/1477370818788006","article-title":"Digital Harassment and Abuse: Experiences of Sexuality and Gender Minority Adults","volume":"17","author":"Powell","year":"2020","journal-title":"European Journal of Criminology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2016.1154964","article-title":"Policing Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence against Adult Victims: Police and Service Sector Perspectives","volume":"28","author":"Powell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Policing and Society"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3637","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260516672055","article-title":"Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Victimization: Results from an Online Survey of Australian Adults","volume":"34","author":"Powell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Interpersonal Violence"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2019.07.005","article-title":"Cyber Sexual Harassment: Prevalence and Association with Substance Use, Poor Mental Health, and STI History among Sexually Active Adolescent Girls","volume":"75","author":"Reed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Adolescence"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854811421448","article-title":"Being Pursued Online: Applying Cyberlifestyle-Routine Activities Theory to Cyberstalking Victimization","volume":"38","author":"Reyns","year":"2011","journal-title":"Criminal Justice and Behavior"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380221090218","article-title":"Technology-Facilitated Abuse in Intimate Relationships: A Scoping Review","volume":"24","author":"Rogers","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trauma, Violence, and Abuse"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/vio0000233","article-title":"Nonconsensual Pornography among U.S. Adults: A Sexual Scripts Framework on Victimization, Perpetration, and Health Correlates for Women and Men","volume":"10","author":"Ruvalcaba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychology of Violence"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Silva, Sara Salgueirinho, Oliveira, Madalena Sofia, and Peixoto, Carlos Silva (2024, July 11). Ass\u00e9dio Sexual nas Redes Sociais: V\u00edtimas e Agressores. Sexual Harassment on Social Networks: Victims and Harassers, Available online: https:\/\/www.cnpdpcj.gov.pt\/documents\/10182\/25443\/Artigo_Ass\u00e9dioSexual_RedesSociais_2021\/76ca5045-929a-4d99-bbad-ac26030f9774."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2019.1710636","article-title":"Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: Prevalence, Risk, and Resiliency in Undergraduate Students","volume":"29","author":"Snaychuk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1080\/08039488.2020.1856924","article-title":"Online and Offline Sexual Harassment Associations of Anxiety and Depression in an Adolescent Sample","volume":"75","author":"Dennhag","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nordic Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2020.0253","article-title":"Cyber Stalking, Cyber Harassment, and Adult Mental Health: A Systematic Review","volume":"24","author":"Stevens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1177\/0959353517720225","article-title":"An Examination of Nonconsensual Pornography Websites","volume":"28","author":"Uhl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Feminism and Psychology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2019.07.012","article-title":"Lifestyles and Routine Activities: Do They Enable Different Types of Cyber Abuse?","volume":"101","author":"Vakhitova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"}],"container-title":["Social Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0760\/13\/7\/372\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:18:19Z","timestamp":1760109499000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0760\/13\/7\/372"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["socsci13070372"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/socsci13070372","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0760"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0760","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]]}}}