{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T09:08:17Z","timestamp":1769245697923,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]],"date-time":"2021-04-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["88881.119533\/2016-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88881.119533\/2016-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["405921\/2016-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["405921\/2016-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global sustainability relies on our capacity of understanding and guiding urban systems and their metabolism adequately. It has been proposed that bigger and denser cities are more resource-efficient than smaller ones because they tend to demand less infrastructure, consume less fuel for transportation and less energy for cooling\/heating in per capita terms. This hypothesis is also called Brand\u2019s Law. However, as cities get bigger, denser and more resource-efficient, they also get richer, and richer inhabitants consume more, potentially increasing resource demand and associated environmental impacts. In this paper, we propose a method based on scaling theory to assess Brand\u2019s Law taking into account greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from both direct (energy and fuels locally consumed) and indirect (embedded in goods and services) sources, measured as carbon footprint (CF). We aim at understanding whether Brand\u2019s Law can be confirmed once we adopt a consumption-based approach to urban emissions. By analyzing the balance between direct and indirect emissions in a theoretical urban system, we develop a scaling theory relating carbon footprint and city size. Facing the lack of empirical data on consumption-based emissions for cities, we developed a model to derive emission estimations using well-established urban metrics (city size, density, infrastructure, wealth). Our results show that, once consumption-based CF is considered, Brand\u2019s Law falls apart, as bigger cities have greater purchase power, leading to greater consumption of goods and higher associated GHG. Findings also suggest that a shift in consumption patterns is of utmost importance, given that, according to the model, each new monetary unit added to the gross domestic product (GDP) or to other income variables results in a more than proportional increase in GHG emissions. This work contributes to a broader assessment of the causes of emissions and the paradigm shift regarding the assumption of efficiency in the relationship of city size and emissions, adding consumption behavior as a critical variable, beyond Brand\u2019s Law.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su13074028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]],"date-time":"2021-04-05T11:48:29Z","timestamp":1617623309000},"page":"4028","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["More from Less? Environmental Rebound Effects of City Size"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5951-1284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joao","family":"Meirelles","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Human-Environmental Relations in Urban Systems, Institute for Environmental Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (HERUS\/EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2719-6061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabiano L.","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics (DFI), Federal University of Lavras (UFLA), Lavras, MG 37200-900, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7732-5223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel","family":"Cury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter\u00f3i, RJ 24220-900, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2921-9896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia R.","family":"Binder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Human-Environmental Relations in Urban Systems, Institute for Environmental Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (HERUS\/EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4175-5701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vinicius M.","family":"Netto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urbanism, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter\u00f3i, RJ 24220-900, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seto, K.C., Solecki, W.D., and Griffith, C.A. (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Urbanization and Global Environmental Change, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315849256"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2009.11.006","article-title":"The greenness of cities: Carbon dioxide emissions and urban development","volume":"67","author":"Glaeser","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1177\/0265813516638340","article-title":"Cities as nuclei of sustainability?","volume":"44","author":"Rybski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Urban Anal. City Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Pachauri, R.K., Allen, M.R., Barros, V.R., Broome, J., Cramer, W., Christ, R., Church, J.A., Clarke, L., Dahe, Q., and Dasgupta, P. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Angel, S. (2012). Planet of Cities, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"West, G.B. (2017). Scale: The Universal Laws of Growth, Innovation, Sustainability, and the Pace of Life in Organisms, Cities, Economies, and Companies, Penguin Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barthelemy, M. (2016). The Structure and Dynamics of Cities, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781316271377"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batty, M. (2013). The New Science of Cities, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9399.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9488(2006)132:1(10)","article-title":"Comparing high and low residential density: Life-cycle analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions","volume":"132","author":"Norman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Urban Plan. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"24","article-title":"Gasoline consumption and cities: A comparison of us cities with a global survey","volume":"55","author":"Newman","year":"1989","journal-title":"JAPA"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Behsh, B. (2002, January 17\u201319). Building form as an option for enhancing the indoor thermal conditions. Proceedings of the Building Physics 2002\u20146th Nordic Symposium, Trondheim, Norway."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0911-52","article-title":"Bigger cities do more with less","volume":"305","author":"Bettencourt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Geddes, P. (1979). Civics: As Applied Sociology, Leicester University Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Ahrend, R., Farchy, E., Kaplanis, I., and Lembcke, A.C. (2014). What Makes Cities More Productive? Evidence on the Role of Urban Governance from Five OECD Countries. OECD Reg. Dev. Work. Pap., 1\u201333."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7301","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0610172104","article-title":"Growth, innovation, scaling, and the pace of life in cities","volume":"104","author":"Bettencourt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1235823","article-title":"The origins of scaling in cities","volume":"340","author":"Bettencourt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160926","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.160926","article-title":"A model of urban scaling laws based on distance-dependent interactions","volume":"4","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1080\/1360481032000157478","article-title":"Writing the city spatially","volume":"7","author":"Soja","year":"2003","journal-title":"City"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Jacobs, J. (1969). The Economy of Cities, Random House."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Seto, K.C., Dhakal, S., Bigio, A., Blanco, H., Delgado, G.C., Dewar, D., Huang, L., Inaba, A., Kansal, A., and Lwasa, S. (2014). Human settlements, infrastructure and spatial planning. Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (2019, July 02). Consumption-Based GHG Emissions of C40 Cities. Available online: http:\/\/www.c40.org\/researches\/consumption-based-emissions."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2013.10.005","article-title":"Justice and cost effectiveness of consumption-based versus production-based approaches in the case of unilateral climate policies","volume":"24","author":"Steininger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5545","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b07071","article-title":"A review on city-level carbon accounting","volume":"53","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Janet, R., Laurent, C., Simon, S., Kjell, O., Brian, D., Matt, S., Mike, B., Pierre, B., Environment, C., and Rob, F. (2004). The Greenhouse Gas Protocol: A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard, World Resources Institute. WBCSD\/WRI 2004."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Fong, W.K., Sotos, M., Doust, M.M., Schultz, S., Marques, A., and Deng-Beck, C. (2015). Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (gpc), World Resources Institute."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"26","article-title":"Consumption-based emission accounting for chinese cities","volume":"47","author":"Mi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Dhakal, S., and Hidefumi, I. (2004). Urban Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Asian Mega-Cities: Policies for a Sustainable Future, Institute for Global Environmental. Urban Environmental Management Project."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35039","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/3\/035039","article-title":"Carbon footprints of cities and other human settlements in the uk","volume":"8","author":"Minx","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2017.09.004","article-title":"Ghg emissions and the rural-urban divide. a carbon footprint analysis based on the german official income and expenditure survey","volume":"145","author":"Gill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034034","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/6\/3\/034034","article-title":"Dense downtown living more carbon intense due to higher consumption: A case study of helsinki","volume":"6","author":"Heinonen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1021\/es4034364","article-title":"Spatial distribution of us household carbon footprints reveals suburbanization undermines greenhouse gas benefits of urban population density","volume":"48","author":"Jones","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.12.139","article-title":"Producer cities and consumer cities: Using production-and consumption-based carbon accounts to guide climate action in china, the uk, and the us","volume":"176","author":"Sudmant","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00173","DOI":"10.47235\/rmu.v8i1.173","article-title":"A revolu\u00e7\u00e3o dos dados e a nova ci\u00eancia das cidades (Editorial)","volume":"8","author":"Netto","year":"2020","journal-title":"RMU"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00159","DOI":"10.47235\/rmu.v8i1.159","article-title":"F\u00edsica das Cidades","volume":"8","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"RMU"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1038\/467912a","article-title":"A unified theory of urban living","volume":"467","author":"Bettencourt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Netto, V.M., Meirelles, J., and Ribeiro, F.L. (2017). Social Interaction and the City: The Effect of Space on the Reduction of Entropy. Complexity, 2017.","DOI":"10.31235\/osf.io\/kdfkt"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160005","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0005","article-title":"Urban scaling in europe","volume":"13","author":"Bettencourt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortman, S.G., Cabaniss, A.H., Sturm, J.O., and Bettencourt, L.M. (2014). The pre-history of urban scaling. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0087902"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomez-Lievano, A., Youn, H., and Bettencourt, L.M.A. (2012). The statistics of urban scaling and their connection to zipf\u2019s law. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0040393"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Gomez-Lievano, A., Youn, H., and Bettencourt, L.M. (2014). Scaling in transportation networks. PLoS ONE, 9."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1080\/1747423X.2017.1280550","article-title":"Growth in urban extent and allometric analysis of west african cities","volume":"12","author":"Adhikari","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Land Use Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meirelles, J., Neto, C.R., Ferreira, F.F., Ribeiro, F.L., and Binder, C.R. (2018). Evolution of urban scaling: Evidence from brazil. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204574"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1086\/261763","article-title":"Increasing returns and economic geography","volume":"99","author":"Krugman","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Political Econ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130789","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2013.0789","article-title":"The scaling of human interactions with city size","volume":"11","author":"Bettencourt","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribeiro, F.L., Meirelles, J., Netto, V.M., Neto, C.R., and Baronchelli, A. (2020). On the relation between Transversal and Longitudinal Scaling in Cities. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240758"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"20150937","article-title":"Scaling and universality in urban economic diversification","volume":"13","author":"Youn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Interface"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1","article-title":"From global scaling to the dynamics of individual cities","volume":"115","author":"Depersin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Molinero, C., and Thurner, S. (2019). How the geometry of cities explains urban scaling laws and determines their exponents. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140745","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2014.0745","article-title":"Constructing cities, deconstructing scaling laws","volume":"12","author":"Arcaute","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1068\/b4105c","article-title":"Scaling: Lost in the smog","volume":"41","author":"Louf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150649","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.150649","article-title":"Is this scaling nonlinear?","volume":"3","author":"Leitao","year":"2016","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strano, E., and Sood, V. (2016). Rich and poor cities in europe. an urban scaling approach to mapping the european economic transition. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159465"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muller, N.Z., and Jha, A. (2017). Does environmental policy affect scaling laws between population and pollution? evidence from american metropolitan areas. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181407"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1068\/b3805ed","article-title":"Defining city size","volume":"38","author":"Batty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cesaretti, R., Lobo, J., Bettencourt, L.M., Ortman, S.G., and Smith, M.E. (2016). Population-area relationship for medieval european cities. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162678"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9787.1958.tb01366.x","article-title":"Physics of population distribution","volume":"1","author":"Stewart","year":"1958","journal-title":"J. Reg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1080\/04353684.1971.11879355","article-title":"Urban allometric growth","volume":"53","author":"Nordbeck","year":"1971","journal-title":"Geogr. Ann. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regsciurbeco.2012.02.002","article-title":"Yet even more evidence on the spatial size of cities: Urban spatial expansion in the us, 1980\u20132000","volume":"42","author":"Paulsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Reg. Sci. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2016.04.006","article-title":"Diverse cities or the systematic paradox of urban scaling laws","volume":"63","author":"Cottineau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"71","article-title":"Shorter Roads go a Long Way: The relationship between density and road length per resident within and between cities","volume":"2020","author":"Cleveland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. Plan. Policy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3204","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11184-y","article-title":"Effects of changing population or density on urban carbon dioxide emissions","volume":"10","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14236","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0901898106","article-title":"Scaling laws between population and facility densities","volume":"106","author":"Um","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Netto, V.M., Ribeiro, F.L., Silva de Carvalho, C.L., Cabral, V., and Neto, C. (2020, July 02). As Cidades na Pandemia: O Papel do Tamanho e da Densidade Urbana. Available online: https:\/\/caosplanejado.com\/as-cidades-na-pandemia-o-papel-do-tamanho-e-da-densidade-urbana\/."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Fragkias, M. (2015). Urbanization, economic growth and sustainability. The Routledge Handbook of Urbanization and Global Environmental Change, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.12.2.127","article-title":"Urban diversity and economic growth","volume":"12","author":"Quigley","year":"1998","journal-title":"JEP"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujita, M. (1989). Urban Economic Theory: Land Use and City Size, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511625862"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Raan, A.F., Van Der Meulen, G., and Goedhart, W. (2016). Urban scaling of cities in the netherlands. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0146775"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, L.G., Ribeiro, H.V., Lenzi, E.K., and Mendes, R.S. (2013). Distance to the scaling law: A useful approach for unveiling relationships between crime and urban metrics. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/7471cfa3-9b0f-4cc8-8bc8-fd9fb3ce5844"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Ignazzi, C.A. (2015). Coevolution in the Brazilian System of Cities. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e9 Paris 1, Panth\u00e9on-Sorbonne]."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sobolevsky, S., Sitko, I., Tachet des Combes, R., Hawelka, B., Murillo Arias, J., and Ratti, C. (2016). Cities through the prism of people\u2019s spending behavior. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0146291"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2006.01.058","article-title":"Scaling laws in urban supply networks","volume":"363","author":"Helbing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Physica A"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Schl\u00e4pfer, M., Lee, J., and Bettencourt, L. (2015). Urban skylines: Building heights and shapes as measures of city size. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDonald, B.C., Gentner, D.R., Goldstein, A.H., and Harley, R.A. (2013). Does size matter? scaling of CO2 emissions and us urban areas. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0064727"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4235","DOI":"10.1038\/srep04235","article-title":"Large cities are less green","volume":"4","author":"Oliveira","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.11.054","article-title":"The efficient, the intensive, and the productive: Insights from urban kaya scaling","volume":"236","author":"Gudipudi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1177\/2399808319825867","article-title":"Urban emission scaling\u2014research insights and a way forward","volume":"46","author":"Gudipudi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Urban Anal. City Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"011003","article-title":"Urban carbon footprints: A consumption-based approach for Swiss households","volume":"2","author":"Pang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ERC"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2013.07.035","article-title":"Energy requirements of consumption: Urban form, climatic and socio-economic factors, rebounds and their policy implications","volume":"63","author":"Wiedenhofer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025003","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/2\/025003","article-title":"Situated lifestyles: I. how lifestyles change along with the level of urbanization and what the greenhouse gas implications are\u2014A study of finland","volume":"8","author":"Heinonen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014). Urban Areas. Climate Change 2014\u2014Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects: Working Group II Contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781107415416"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"064041","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aac72a","article-title":"Carbon footprints of 13,000 cities","volume":"13","author":"Moran","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8009(00)00214-7","article-title":"Technological progress and sustainable development: What about the rebound effect?","volume":"36","author":"Binswanger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1093\/reep\/rev017","article-title":"The rebound effect and energy efficiency policy","volume":"10","author":"Gillingham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1007\/s40974-017-0072-9","article-title":"Global carbon inequality","volume":"2","author":"Hubacek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"International Resource Panel, and United Nations Environment Programme (2011). Sustainable Consumption, and Production Branch. Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts from Economic Growth, UNEP\/Earthprint."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.08.235","article-title":"Decoupling between human development and energy consumption within footprint accounts","volume":"202","author":"Bueno","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, J.D., Sutton, P.C., Werner, A.D., Costanza, R., Mohr, S.H., and Simmons, C.T. (2016). Is decoupling gdp growth from environmental impact possible?. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0164733"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11884","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0905232106","article-title":"Sharing global CO2 emission reductions among one billion high emitters","volume":"106","author":"Chakravarty","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1525\/bio.2011.61.1.7","article-title":"Energetic limits to economic growth","volume":"61","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shikwambana, L., Mhangara, P., and Kganyago, M. (2021). Assessing the Relationship between Economic Growth and Emissions Levels in South Africa between 1994 and 2019. SUSTDE, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13052645"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/14693062.2013.788858","article-title":"Consumption-based GHG emission accounting: A UK case study","volume":"13","author":"Barrett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clim. Policy"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2014.04.019","article-title":"Relationship between urbanization, direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions, and expenditures: A multivariate analysis","volume":"104","author":"Heinonen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e438","DOI":"10.1002\/wcc.438","article-title":"Consumption-based carbon accounting: Does it have a future?","volume":"8","author":"Afionis","year":"2017","journal-title":"WIREs Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114016","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab443d","article-title":"Household carbon footprint patterns by the degree of urbanisation in Europe","volume":"14","author":"Ottelin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8009(01)00155-0","article-title":"Dynamic models for managing durables using a stratified approach: The case of Tunja, Colombia","volume":"38","author":"Binder","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/13\/7\/4028\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:33:52Z","timestamp":1760362432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/13\/7\/4028"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["su13074028"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su13074028","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]]}}}