{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T07:19:39Z","timestamp":1776755979042,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,28]],"date-time":"2022-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The meat industry generates a large amount of animal by-products not only derived from the slaughter process but also due to the losses and waste of meat products along the supply chain, contributing to the world\u2019s food loss and waste problem. Yearly, 1.7 Mt of meat in the European retail sector and 20% of meat for consumption is wasted in this sector of the supply chain. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to find and evaluate alternatives for the valorisation of agri-food residues, more specifically the meat waste from the food retail sector, through a technological perspective. Thus, we delve into the industrial processes already implemented and the emerging procedures that use muscle, bones and fats by-products from poultry, cattle and pork as the main raw materials in order to identify and characterise them. The results indicate that in addition to the current destinations\u2014landfill, incineration and the rendering process\u2014these animal by-products can be incorporated in the production of biodiesel, food formulations, pharmaceuticals, fertilisers and biogas through an industrial symbiosis approach. Consequently, the several valorisation processes and procedures identified not only suggest an increase in concern about the impacts of the disposal of these materials, but also highlight the potential associated with the use of animal by-products as raw material to obtain added-value products.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su14052830","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,1]],"date-time":"2022-03-01T21:31:47Z","timestamp":1646170307000},"page":"2830","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Analysis of the Food Loss and Waste Valorisation of Animal By-Products from the Retail Sector"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Pinto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4175-9593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Boavida-Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Low Carbon & Resource Efficiency, R&Di, Instituto de Soldadura e Qualidade, 4415-491 Grij\u00f3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8128-7346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henrique A.","family":"Matos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERENA, DEQ, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico\u2014Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Innovation & Technology Transfer, FEUGA, Campus Universit\u00e1rio Plaza Miralles, Local A2, 36310 Vigo, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2011). Food Loss and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Solutions, FAO."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Stenmarck, \u00c5., Jensen, C., Quested, T., Moates, G., Cseh, B., Juul, S., Parry, A., Politano, A., Redlingshofer, B., and Scherhaufer, S. (2016). FUSIONS\u2014Estimates of European Food Waste Levels, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2015.05.007","article-title":"Exploring future patterns of meat consumption","volume":"109","author":"Mathijs","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3083","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0122","article-title":"Feeding the world healthily: The challenge of measuring the effects of agriculture on health","volume":"365","author":"Hawkesworth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2016.04.021","article-title":"New insights into meat by-product utilization","volume":"120","author":"Mora","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roka, K. (2019). Environmental and Social Impacts of Food Waste. Responsible Consumption and Production, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-95726-5_17"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Gerber, P.J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., Falcucci, A., and Tempio, G. (2013). Tackling Climate Change through Livestock\u2014A Global Assessment of Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2019.06.011","article-title":"Quantification of food waste per product group along the food supply chain in the European Union: A mass flow analysis","volume":"149","author":"Caldeira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-9290.2011.00444.x","article-title":"Redefining Industrial Symbiosis","volume":"16","author":"Lombardi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1162\/jiec.2007.1110","article-title":"Uncovering\u2019 Industrial Symbiosis","volume":"11","author":"Chertow","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5774","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.9.4.5774-5777","article-title":"Food Waste and Byproduct Valorization through Bio-processing: Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"9","author":"Turon","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.121983","article-title":"Value-added chemicals from food supply chain wastes: State-of-the-art review and future prospects","volume":"375","author":"Xiong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2017.09.020","article-title":"Anaerobic digestion of food waste\u2014Challenges and opportunities","volume":"247","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2015.06.008","article-title":"Food waste generation and industrial uses: A review","volume":"45","author":"Girotto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2017.06.047","article-title":"A focus on the state of the art of food waste\/losses issue and suggestions for future researches","volume":"68","author":"Muriana","year":"2017","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.125910","article-title":"Taxonomy of antecedents of food waste\u2014A literature review","volume":"291","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"European Commission (2008). Directive 2008\/98\/EC on waste and repealing certain directives (Waste Framework Directive). Off. J. Eur. Union, 34, 3\u201330. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:312:0003:0030:en:PDF."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52512-3.00117-0","article-title":"Agribusiness Organization and Management","volume":"1","author":"Gunderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Encycl. Agric. Food Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2014.04.020","article-title":"The food waste hierarchy as a framework for the management of food surplus and food waste","volume":"76","author":"Papargyropoulou","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Goedde, L., Horil, M., and Sanghvi, S. (2015). Pursuing the Global Opportunity in Food and Agribusiness, Mckinsey Quarterly."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"FoodDrink Europe (2020, December 20). Data & Trends of the European Food and Drink Industry. Available online: https:\/\/www.fooddrinkeurope.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/FoodDrinkEurope-Data-Trends-2021-digital.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1108\/00070700510589512","article-title":"Deliberate contamination of the food supply chain","volume":"107","author":"Manning","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. Food J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2017.06.010","article-title":"The dark side of retail food waste: Evidences from in-store data","volume":"125","author":"Cicatiello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Canali, M., Amani, P., Aramyan, L., Gheoldus, M., Moates, G., \u00d6stergren, K., Silvennoinen, K., Waldron, K., and Vittuari, M. (2017). Food Waste Drivers in Europe, from Identification to Possible Interventions. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9010037"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020, July 20). Technical Platform on the Measurement and Reduction of Food Loss and Waste. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/platform-food-loss-waste\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1126\/science.352.6284.424-p","article-title":"Reducing food loss and waste","volume":"352","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2017.00021","article-title":"Food loss and Waste Reduction as an Integral Part of a Circular Economy","volume":"5","author":"Franco","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013). Food Wastage Footprint\u2014Impacts on Natural Resources, FAO. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/3\/i3347e\/i3347e.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Katsarova, I. (2016). Tackling Food Waste: The EU\u2019s Contribution to a Global Issue, European Parliamentary Research Service. No. November."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"European Commission (2010). Preparatory Study on Food Waste across EU 27, European Commission. No. October."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Grethe, H., Dembele, A., and Duman, N. (2011). How to Feed the World\u2019s Growing Billions\u2014Understanding FAO World Food Projections and their Implications, WWF. Available online: https:\/\/www.wwf.de\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/WWF_BOELL_How_to_feed.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Priefer, C., J\u00f6rissen, J., and Br\u00e4utigam, K.-R. (2013). Technology Options for Feeding 10 Billion People\u2014Options for Cutting Food Waste, European Union. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/RegData\/etudes\/etudes\/join\/2013\/513515\/IPOL-JOIN_ET(2013)513515_EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Waarts, Y., van der Sluis, A., and Timmermans, T. (2020, December 20). Obstacles Experienced in Legislation and Regulations, No. October. Available online: https:\/\/library.wur.nl\/WebQuery\/wurpubs\/fulltext\/188798."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.02.132","article-title":"Cosmetic specifications in the food waste issue: Supply chain considerations and practices concerning suboptimal food products","volume":"183","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2016.12.027","article-title":"Processing- and product-related causes for food waste and implications for the food supply chain","volume":"61","author":"Raak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stenmarck, \u00c5., Hanssen, O.J., Werge, M., Silvennoinen, K., and Katajajuuri, J.-M. (2011). Initiatives on Prevention of Food Waste in the Retail and Wholesale Trades, Nordic Council of Ministers.","DOI":"10.6027\/tn2011-548"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2015.11.022","article-title":"Food waste reduction in supermarkets\u2014Net costs and benefits of reduced storage temperature","volume":"107","author":"Eriksson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2013.11.011","article-title":"Waste of organic and conventional meat and dairy products\u2014A case study from Swedish retail","volume":"83","author":"Eriksson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2004.03.004","article-title":"Food losses in food service institutions Examples from Sweden","volume":"29","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Policy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3065","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0126","article-title":"Food waste within food supply chains: Quantification and potential for change to 2050","volume":"365","author":"Parfitt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Monforti-Ferrario, F., Dallemand, J., Pinedo Pascua, I., Motola, V., Banja, M., Scarlat, N., Medarac, H., Castellazzi, L., Labanca, N., and Bertoldi, P. (2015). Energy Use in the EU Food Sector: State of Play and Opportunities for Improvement, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-011-9517-8","article-title":"A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products","volume":"15","author":"Mekonnen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3232","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1109936109","article-title":"The water footprint of humanity","volume":"109","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2014). Food Wastage Footprint\u2014Full-Cost Accounting, FAO."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121129","article-title":"Waste valorization technology options for the egg and broiler industries: A review and recommendations","volume":"262","author":"Kanani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.109341","article-title":"Meat consumption: Which are the current global risks? A review of recent (2010\u20132020) evidences","volume":"137","author":"Nadal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"OECD (2020). Meat Consumption (Indicator), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Westhoek, H., Rood, T., van den Berg, M., Janse, J., Nijdam, D., Reudink, M., Stehfest, E., Lesschen, J.P., Oenema, O., and Woltjer, G.B. (2011). The Protein Puzzle\u2014The Consumption and Production of Meat, Dairy and Fish in the European Union 2011, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2012.04.004","article-title":"Innovations in value-addition of edible meat by-products","volume":"92","author":"Aristoy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"European Commission (2009). Regulation (EC) No 1069\/2009 Laying Down Health Rules as Regards Animal by-Products and Derived Products Not Intended for Human Consumption and Repealing Regulation (EC) No 1774\/2002\u2014Animal by-products Regulation. Off. J. Eur. Union, 300, 1\u201333."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"European Commission (2011). Regulation (EU) No 142\/2011 of 25 February 2011 Implementing Regulation (EC) No 1069\/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council Laying Down Health Rules as Regards Animal by-Products and Derived Products Not Intended for Human Consumption. Off. J. Eur. Union, 54, 1\u2013254."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"European Commission (2001). Regulation (EC) No 999\/2001 laying down rules for the prevention, control and eradication of certain transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Off. J. Eur. Union, 147, 1\u201340."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"European Commission (2018). Guidelines for the feed use of food no longer intended for human consumption (2018\/C 133\/02). Off. J. Eur. Union, 133, 2\u201318."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.energy.25.1.313","article-title":"Industrial symbiosis: Literature and Taxonomy","volume":"25","author":"Chertow","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Energy Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"83","article-title":"Business models for industrial symbiosis: A guide for firms","volume":"3","author":"Fraccascia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Environ. Sci. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119113","article-title":"A comprehensive review of industrial symbiosis","volume":"247","author":"Neves","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-6526(97)00017-6","article-title":"Creating by-product resource exchanges: Strategies for eco-industrial parks","volume":"5","author":"Lowe","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adhikari, B.B., Chae, M., and Bressler, D.C. (2018). Utilization of Slaughterhouse Waste in Value-Added Applications: Recent Advances in the Development of Wood Adhesives. Polymers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym10020176"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Meeker, D.L. (2006). Essential Rendering\u2014All About THE Animal By-Products Industry, National Renderers Association."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119845","article-title":"Life-cycle assessment of animal feed ingredients: Poultry fat, poultry by-product meal and hydrolyzed feather meal","volume":"252","author":"Campos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Facey, R.M., and Stavne, A. (2009). Apparatus and Process for Production of Biogas. (2641270), Patent CA."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Someus, E., and Pugliese, M. (2018). Concentrated Phosphorus Recovery from Food Grade Animal Bones. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10072349"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"European Commission (2017). Communication on the 2017 List of Critical Raw Materials for the EU, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schrieber, R., and Gareis, H. (2007). Gelatine Handbook\u2014Theory and Industrial Practice, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527610969"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"European Commission (2005). Best Available Techniques in the Slaughterhouses and Animal By-Products Industries, European IPPC Bureau."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chomarat, F.N., Grech, G.P., Cueto, L.G., Rodriguez, E., and Boe, J.-F. (2013). Method for the Preparation of Sodium Chondroitin Sulphate. (2013\/0172289 A1), U.S. Patent.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/641631"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2021, February 20). Meat and Livestock Australia, \u201cEdible Meat Powders and Extracts.\u201d 2001. Available online: https:\/\/meatupdate.csiro.au\/infosheets\/Edible%20Meat%20Powders%20and%20Extracts.pdf."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Scheide-Fisher, I., and Scheide, J.D. (2011). Method of Manufacturing Meat Extract. (2011\/0250316 A1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2021.108608","article-title":"Management of meat by- and co-products for an improved meat processing sustainability","volume":"181","author":"Reig","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2021.02.035","article-title":"Environmental benefits of pet food obtained as a result of the valorisation of meat fraction derived from packaged food waste","volume":"125","author":"Mosna","year":"2021","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2020.105826","article-title":"Valorisation of food waste using salt to alleviate inhibition by animal fats and vegetable oils during anaerobic digestion","volume":"143","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomass-Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5717","DOI":"10.1021\/ef100705s","article-title":"Biodiesel Production through Transesterification of Poultry Fat at 30 \u00b0C","volume":"24","author":"Moreira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture (2020, July 03). Chicken, Broilers or Fryers, Separable Fat, Raw, Available online: https:\/\/fdc.nal.usda.gov\/fdc-app.html#\/food-details\/171468\/nutrients."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture (2020, July 03). Beef, Retail Cuts, Separable Fat, Raw, Available online: https:\/\/fdc.nal.usda.gov\/fdc-app.html#\/food-details\/168605\/nutrients."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020, July 08). \u201cComposition of Meat\u201d. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/ag\/againfo\/themes\/en\/meat\/backgr_composition.html."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2017.12.026","article-title":"Experimental investigation of the effects of turkey rendering fat biodiesel on combustion, performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine","volume":"216","author":"Keskin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2010.04.001","article-title":"Investigations on supercritical transesterification of chicken fat for biodiesel production from low-cost lipid feedstocks","volume":"54","author":"Marulanda","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6248047","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/6248047","article-title":"Chemical and Biological Investigation of Organic Wastes of Frying Oils and Beef Fats: Valorization for Biodiesel Production","volume":"2018","author":"Souissi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiotec.2015.09.002","article-title":"Polyhydroxyalkanoates production with Ralstonia eutropha from low quality waste animal fats","volume":"214","author":"Riedel","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"1","article-title":"Turning pork processing waste into value-added chemicals for the food industry","volume":"6","author":"Amorim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2021.08.015","article-title":"Bovine and ovine meat co-products valorisation opportunities: A systematic literature review","volume":"118","author":"Shirsath","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"115985","article-title":"A review on the valorisation of food waste as a nutrient source and soil amendment","volume":"272","author":"Hoang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2018.11.086","article-title":"Chicken leg bone as a source of chondroitin sulfate","volume":"207","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.2527\/jas1974.393493x","article-title":"Bone composition in cattle, pigs, sheep and poulty","volume":"39","author":"Field","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2015.07.034","article-title":"Preparation of Natural Hydroxyapatite from Bovine Femur Bones Using Calcination at Various Temperatures","volume":"2","author":"Khoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2019.06.064","article-title":"Effect of the calcination temperature on the properties of natural hydroxyapatite derived from chicken bone wastes","volume":"16","author":"Bee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpcs.2021.110533","article-title":"Bovine bone-derived natural hydroxyapatite-supported ZnCl2 as a sustainable high efficiency heterogeneous biocatalyst for synthesizing amidoalkyl naphthols","volume":"163","author":"Azzallou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Solids"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2018.06.057","article-title":"Optimization of gelatin extraction from chicken mechanically deboned meat residue using alkaline pre-treatment","volume":"97","author":"Erge","year":"2018","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2008.01745.x","article-title":"Optimising conditions for enzymatic extraction of edible gelatin from the cattle bones using response surface methodology","volume":"44","author":"Keramat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2016.08.021","article-title":"Development of active gelatin films by means of valorisation of food processing waste: A review","volume":"68","author":"Etxabide","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1080\/10942912.2021.1986522","article-title":"Valorization of chicken slaughterhouse by-products: Production and properties of chicken trachea hydrolysates using commercial proteases","volume":"24","author":"Pramualkijja","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Prop."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2018.12.003","article-title":"Synthesis of bone char from cattle bones and its application for fluoride removal from the contaminated water","volume":"8","author":"Shahid","year":"2019","journal-title":"Groundw. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2015.07.031","article-title":"Synthesis and characterisation of mesoporous bone char obtained by pyrolysis of animal bones, for environmental application","volume":"3","author":"Patel","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2005.02.003","article-title":"Physical and chemical characterisation of crude meat and bone meal combustion residue: \u201cWaste or raw material?\u201d","volume":"121","author":"Deydier","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbp.2016.03.003","article-title":"Preparation of a porous biochar from the acid activation of pork bones","volume":"98","author":"Sierra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Bioprod. Process."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2018.06.481","article-title":"The study of tensile and flexural strength of cattle bone particulate reinforced epoxy","volume":"5","author":"Harish","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C578","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.13211","article-title":"Preparation of Substrate for Flavorant from Chicken Bone Residue with Hot-Pressure Process","volume":"81","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2014.05.036","article-title":"Bioactive peptides from meat muscle and by-products: Generation, functionality and application as functional ingredients","volume":"98","author":"Lafarga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"193","article-title":"Allergen Data Collection: Chicken Meat (Gallus domesticus)","volume":"3","author":"Besler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Internet Symp. Food Allerg."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"171","article-title":"Allergen Data Collection: Beef (Bos domesticus)","volume":"3","author":"Besler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Internet Symp. Food Allerg."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2008-00558","article-title":"Enzymatic hydrolysis of poultry meal with endo- and exopeptidases","volume":"89","author":"Nchienzia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C405","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3841.2008.00765.x","article-title":"Optimization of the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Chicken Meat Using Response Surface Methodology","volume":"73","author":"Kurozawa","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.6131","article-title":"Waste products from the poultry industry: A source of high-value dietary supplements","volume":"95","author":"Stiborova","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1021\/jf020604h","article-title":"Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Peptides in a Hydrolyzed Chicken Breast Muscle Extract","volume":"51","author":"Saiga","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pex457","article-title":"Protein hydrolysate from turkey meat and optimization of its antioxidant potential by response surface methodology","volume":"97","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2020.102377","article-title":"Potential of innovative pre-treatment technologies for the revalorisation of residual materials from the chicken industry through enzymatic hydrolysis","volume":"64","author":"Thoresen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2007.10.029","article-title":"Extraction of proteins from slaughterhouse by-products: Influence of operating conditions on functional properties","volume":"79","author":"Selmane","year":"2008","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2011.10.013","article-title":"Dynamic rheology and endothermic transitions of proteins recovered from chicken-meat processing by-products using isoelectric solubilization\/precipitation and addition of TiO2","volume":"46","author":"Tahergorabi","year":"2012","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2012.04.003","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of adhesive from spent hen proteins","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Lifevalporc (2020, October 21). Valorization of Pig Carcasses through Their Transformation into Biofuels and Organic Fertilizers. Available online: http:\/\/lifevalporc.eu\/Lifevalporc."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/14\/5\/2830\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:29:44Z","timestamp":1760135384000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/14\/5\/2830"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,28]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["su14052830"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su14052830","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,28]]}}}