{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T23:54:34Z","timestamp":1778025274836,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]],"date-time":"2022-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)","award":["Base Funding UIDB\/04708\/2020 of CONSTRUCT - Instituto de I&D em Estruturas e Constru\u00e7\u00f5es"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Base Funding UIDB\/04708\/2020 of CONSTRUCT - Instituto de I&D em Estruturas e Constru\u00e7\u00f5es"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Building energy codes are considered to be an effective policy tool for energy reduction worldwide. However, their application and effectiveness are still limited in developing countries. In Egypt, the residential sector is promising for energy savings, as most of the existing residential buildings are aged with low thermal performance and non-conformance with energy codes. This study aims to raise the awareness of promoting the Egyptian residential energy codes among construction parties, especially end-users, by quantifying the environmental impacts, in terms of energy savings and thermal comfort enhancement. Moreover, it attempts achieving a nearly zero energy building by integrating several energy-efficient measures with renewable energy sources. Thus, in this study, a typical residential building in Cairo was chosen for simulation. The simulation results revealed that applying energy code instructions for building envelope, lighting enhancement and increases in cooling set-points, from 24 \u00b0C to 25 \u00b0C, saved 37.85% of annual electrical energy and resulted in a cooling reduction of 50.53%. Furthermore, the photovoltaic system incorporation succeeded in transforming the building into a nearly zero energy building. Concerning thermal comfort, the application of passive energy-efficient measures significantly influences indoor thermal comfort, with a 30% reduction in discomfort hours during the cooling season, which represents the main concern in hot climate regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su14073936","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,27]],"date-time":"2022-03-27T21:31:25Z","timestamp":1648416685000},"page":"3936","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Compliance with Building Energy Code for the Residential Sector in Egyptian Hot-Arid Climate: Potential Impact, Difficulties, and Further Improvements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Mennaallah","family":"GamalEldine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Building Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria 1029, Egypt"},{"name":"CONSTRUCT (LFC), Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0398-3423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helena","family":"Corvacho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT (LFC), Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Environment Programme (2020). 2020 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction: Towards a Zero-Emission, in Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunha, F.O., and Oliveira, A.C. (2020). Benchmarking for Realistic NZEB Hotel Buildings. J. Build. Eng., 30.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.101298"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"European Commission (2020). A Renovation Wave Communication- Greening Our Buildings, Creating Jobs, Improving Lives, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Filippidou, F., and Jimenez Navarro, J.P. (2019). Achieving the Cost-Effective Energy Transformation of Europe\u2019s Buildings, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"European Parliament and the Council of the European Union Directive (EU) (2010). 2018\/844 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 Amending Directive 2010\/31\/EU on the Energy Performance of Buildings and Directive 2012\/27\/EU on Energy Efficiency. Off. J. Eur. Union, 153, 13\u201335."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.09.044","article-title":"Deep Regeneration vs Shallow Renovation to Achieve Nearly Zero Energy in Existing Buildings: Energy Saving and Economic Impact of Design Solutions in the Housing Stock of Bologna","volume":"156","author":"Semprini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2018.01.056","article-title":"Deep Renovation in Existing Residential Buildings through Fa\u00e7ade Additions: A Case Study in a Typical Residential Building of the 70s","volume":"166","author":"Fotopoulou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.07.023","article-title":"Optimal Renovation of Buildings towards the Nearly Zero Energy Building Standard","volume":"160","author":"Iturriaga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.07.104","article-title":"Environmental and Energy Impact of the EPBD in Residential Buildings in Hot and Temperate Mediterranean Zones: The Case of Spain","volume":"161","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2022.01.089","article-title":"Exploring the Potential of Nearly Zero Energy Retrofitting for Generic Office Buildings in Cairo, Egypt","volume":"8","author":"Hamza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Reports"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2017.05.018","article-title":"Achieving Net Zero-Energy Buildings through Retrofitting Existing Residential Buildings Using PV Panels","volume":"115","author":"Albadry","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Florentine, V., Caterina, S., Kurt, W., and Riadh, B. (2013). Energy Efficiency Building Code A Roadmap for Implementation in the MENA Region, UN-CTCN."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2013.11.057","article-title":"Prediction of Future Energy Consumption Reduction Using GRC Envelope Optimization for Residential Buildings in Egypt","volume":"70","author":"Fahmy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"CAPMAS (2017). Annual Bulletin of Environment Statistics-Part One: Environment Conditions & Quality."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Ministry of Energy (2018). Egyptian Electricity Holding Company Annual Report 2017\/2018."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"CAPMAS (2021, August 08). Current Population, Available online: https:\/\/www.capmas.gov.eg\/HomePage.aspx."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18848\/2154-8587\/CGP\/v09i03\/1-15","article-title":"Energy Efficiency for Egyptian Housing: Code Compliance and Enforcement","volume":"9","author":"Edeisy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Constr. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"374","article-title":"Sustainable Energy Potential in the Egyptian Residential Sector","volume":"2","author":"Hanna","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Eng. B"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2012.01.065","article-title":"Development of Benchmark Models for the Egyptian Residential Buildings Sector","volume":"94","author":"Attia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2018.11.001","article-title":"High Technology or Low Technology for Buildings Envelopes in Residential Buildings in Egypt","volume":"57","author":"Khalil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alexandria Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.4236\/epe.2017.93014","article-title":"A Framework to Promote Energy Efficiency as a Solution to the Energy Problem in Egypt","volume":"09","author":"Sameh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Power Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.08.041","article-title":"Twenty-Year Tracking of Lighting Savings and Power Density in the Residential Sector","volume":"154","author":"Attia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2012.06.048","article-title":"Compliance with Building Energy Regulations for New-Build Dwellings","volume":"48","author":"Pan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2010.08.027","article-title":"A Review of Building Energy Regulation and Policy for Energy Conservation in Developing Countries","volume":"38","author":"Iwaro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Ahmed, A.N., Samaan, M.M., Farag, O.M.A., and El Aishy, A.S. (2011, January 14\u201316). Using Simulation Tools for Enhancing Residential Buildings Energy Code in Egypt. Proceedings of the Proceedings of Building Simulation 2011: 12th Conference of International Building Performance Simulation Association, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities (2006). Egyptian Code for Improving the Efficiency of Energy Use in Buildings, Part 1: Residential Buildings (306-2005)."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.12.034","article-title":"Reducing Cooling Demands in a Hot Dry Climate: A Simulation Study for Non-Insulated Passive Cool Roof Thermal Performance in Residential Buildings","volume":"89","author":"Dabaieh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2010.09.007","article-title":"An Analysis of Bioclimatic Zones and Implications for Design of Outdoor Built Environments in Egypt","volume":"46","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2011","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2021.108599","article-title":"Simulation-Based Framework to Evaluate Resistivity of Cooling Strategies in Buildings against Overheating Impact of Climate Change","volume":"208","author":"Rahif","year":"2022","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, November 18). DesignBuilder Product Overview. Available online: https:\/\/designbuilder.co.uk\/software\/product-overview."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2009.11.026","article-title":"On the Optimal Selection of Wall Cladding System to Reduce Direct and Indirect CO2 Emissions","volume":"35","author":"Radhi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2015.05.017","article-title":"Impact of Different Thermal Comfort Models on Zero Energy Residential Buildings in Hot Climate","volume":"102","author":"Attia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2014.06.019","article-title":"Evaluating Thermal Comfort in Mixed-Mode Buildings: A Field Study in a Subtropical Climate","volume":"88","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12046","article-title":"Progress in Thermal Comfort Research over the Last Twenty Years","volume":"23","author":"Akimoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lm Hensen, J. (2014, January 24\u201326). Investigating the Impact of Different Thermal Comfort Models for Zero Energy Buildings in Hot Climates. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Energy and Indoor Environment for Hot Climates, ASHRAE, Doha, Qata."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Attia, S., and De Herde, A. (2009, January 15\u201319). Impact and Potentials of Community Scale Low-Energy Retrofit: Case Study In Cairo. Proceedings of the 3rd CIB International Conference on Smart and Sustainable Built Environment, TU Delft, Dutch."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"ASHRAE (2017). ANSI\/ASHRAE Standard 55-2017, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, ASHRAE. [2017th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2020, August 22). Climate.oneBuilding.Org. Available online: http:\/\/climate.onebuilding.org\/WMO_Region_1_Africa\/default.html."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proenv.2017.03.075","article-title":"Envelope Retrofit in Hot Arid Climates","volume":"38","author":"Edeisy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities (2008). Egyptian Specifications for Thermal Insulation Work Items-Ministerial Resolution No. 176 of 1998."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2017.06.034","article-title":"Review of Moisture Behavior and Thermal Performance of Polystyrene Insulation in Building Applications","volume":"123","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1134","article-title":"Energy Efficiency Building Codes for Egypt","volume":"5","author":"Hanna","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Energy Power Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2017.05.011","article-title":"Retrofitting Strategy for Building Envelopes to Achieve Energy Efficiency","volume":"56","author":"Gomaa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alexandria Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"8","article-title":"Effect of Thermal Insulation on Building Thermal Comfort and Energy Consumption in Egypt","volume":"43","author":"Morsy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1","article-title":"Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 626\/2011 of 4 May 2011supplementing Directive 2010\/30\/EU with Regard to Energylabelling of Air Conditioners","volume":"178","author":"EU","year":"2011","journal-title":"Off. J. Eur. Union"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"MOEE (2021, November 22). Air Conditioner Instructions, Available online: http:\/\/www.moee.gov.eg\/tarshed\/elect_device_saving.aspx."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2021, November 11). The Solar Atlas of Egypt, Available online: http:\/\/www.nrea.gov.eg\/Technology\/SolarIntro."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alalouch, C., Al-Saadi, S., AlWaer, H., and Al-Khaled, K. (2019). Energy Saving Potential for Residential Buildings in Hot Climates: The Case of Oman. Sustain. Cities Soc., 46.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2019.101442"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.01.026","article-title":"A Review of Passive Envelope Measures for Improved Building Energy Efficiency in the UAE","volume":"72","author":"Friess","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.08.031","article-title":"A Simulation-Based Optimization Method for Cost-Optimal Analysis of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings","volume":"84","author":"Ferrara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2013.12.020","article-title":"Air Heating of Passive Houses in Cold Climates: Investigation Using Detailed Dynamic Simulations","volume":"74","author":"Georges","year":"2014","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.10.052","article-title":"Combined Use of Design of Experiment and Dynamic Building Simulation in Assessment of Energy Efficiency in Tropical Residential Buildings","volume":"86","author":"Sadeghifam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.12.050","article-title":"Cost Optimality Assessment of a Single Family House: Building and Technical Systems Solutions for the NZEB Target","volume":"90","author":"Becchio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2013.11.028","article-title":"Evaluation of Fenestration Specifications in Egypt in Terms of Energy Consumption and Long Term Cost-Effectiveness","volume":"69","author":"Mahdy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2021, November 08). NREL PVWatts\u00ae Calculator, Available online: https:\/\/pvwatts.nrel.gov\/pvwatts.php."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sayigh, A. (2017). Sustainability of Higher Educational Buildings: Retrofitting Measures to Enhance Energy Performance-the Case of AASTMT Business Management School Building, Egypt. Mediterranean Green Buildings and Renewable Energy: Selected Papers from the World Renewable Energy Network\u2019s Med Green Forum, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-30746-6"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/0741-983X(90)90024-V","article-title":"Impact of Thermal Insulation Location on Buildings in Hot Dry Climates","volume":"7","author":"Saleh","year":"1990","journal-title":"Sol. Wind Technol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.13044\/j.sdewes.2014.02.0030","article-title":"Trends in Residential Energy Consumption in Saudi Arabia with Particular Reference to the Eastern Province","volume":"2","author":"Alrashed","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Dev. Energy Water Environ. Syst."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2021.110954","article-title":"The Impact of Thermal Mass and Insulation of Building Structure on Energy Efficiency","volume":"241","author":"Zilberberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asej.2021.02.008","article-title":"An Investigation of Shading Devices in a Hot Region: A Case Study in a School Building","volume":"12","author":"Alwetaishi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ain Shams Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2013.09.008","article-title":"Using Simulation for Studying the Influence of Horizontal Shading Device Protrusion on the Thermal Performance of Spaces in Residential Buildings","volume":"52","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Alexandria Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"IEA (2022, March 12). Egypt Data and Statistics. Available online: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/data-and-statistics\/data-tables\/?country=EGYPT&energy=Balances&year=2019."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Elsayed, M. (2017). Assessing the Impacts of \u201cFeed-in Tariffs Vs. Net Metering\u201d in Deploying Solar Market in Egypt, The American University in Cairo."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/14\/7\/3936\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:44:03Z","timestamp":1760136243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/14\/7\/3936"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["su14073936"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su14073936","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]}}}