{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T13:42:04Z","timestamp":1767706924971,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,28]],"date-time":"2023-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000348","name":"Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SBG35-2016","UIDB\/04625\/202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SBG35-2016","UIDB\/04625\/202"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000348","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["SBG35-2016","UIDB\/04625\/202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SBG35-2016","UIDB\/04625\/202"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) is characterized by having an ultra-compact matrix resulting in ultra-high mechanical properties, low permeability to water and gases, and improved ductility provided by the addition of fibers. The production of structures with this type of concrete is advantageous in some situations, especially in aggressive environments since it significantly increases durability. However, high dosages of Portland cement and silica fume are commonly adopted, increasing not only the cost but also the environmental impact, jeopardizing its use, mainly in the present context where the sustainability of the construction sector is a global priority. In this sense, improving the eco-efficiency of this type of concrete is mandatory. The objective of this work is to develop eco-ultra-high-durability concrete (eco-UHDC). The UHDC matrix was optimized, focusing mainly on durability and looking for the lowest environmental impact, where several parameters were varied: cement replacement ratio, additions in binder matrix and its relative proportions, water\/binder ratio, type of fibers, and its proportion. The developed eco-UHDC was characterized both in fresh and hardened states, in terms of mechanical properties, time-dependent properties, and durability. This last topic includes the characterization of durability parameters under laboratory conditions and in a real environment, namely, in the tidal zone of the coast of Cape Verde. The results of resistance to carbonation and chloride penetration were used to predict the service life of structures produced with these eco-UHDC. The optimization of the UHDC matrix allowed the development of mixtures with only 60% of cement in relation to the total amount of powder of the matrix, maintaining good workability and the desired mechanical characteristics (compressive strength higher than 100 MPa and flexural strength higher than 12 MPa). The results also showed that considering only the requirements related to durability, the cover of structures produced with these optimized mixtures can be lower than the values recommended by Eurocode 2, with differences that can reach 55%, mainly when pozzolan of Cape Verde is used as partial replacement of Portland cement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su15032381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T03:56:27Z","timestamp":1675050987000},"page":"2381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Development and Characterization of Eco-Efficient Ultra-High Durability Concrete"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1700-5452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keila","family":"Robalo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, University of Cape Verde, Praia 7943-010, Cape Verde"}]},{"given":"Hugo","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, SUScita, ISEC\u2014Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3254-2221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Carmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, SUScita, ISEC\u2014Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1690-9887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"J\u00falio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127839","article-title":"Bond behaviors of pre- and post-yield deformed rebar embedded in ultra-high performance concrete","volume":"341","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Ferdosian, I. (2016, January 10\u201312). Ultra-high Durable Concrete: A Way towards Safe and Durable. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Safety and Durability of Structures (ICOSADOS 2016), Vila Real, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.10.066","article-title":"Critical review on eco-efficient ultra high performance concrete enhanced with nano-materials","volume":"101","author":"Ghafari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Ghafari, E., Costa, H., J\u00falio, E., Portugal, A., and Dur\u00e3es, L. (2012, January 11\u201313). Enhanced durability of ultra high performance concrete by incorporing supplementary cementitious materials. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Microestructural-related Durability of Cementitious Composites, Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Graybeal, B., and Hartmann, J.L. (2003, January 19\u201322). Strength and Durability of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Materials and Structures. Proceedings of the 2003 Concrete Bridge Conference, Brisbane, Australia."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129430","article-title":"Mechanical and durability performance of ultra-high-performance concrete incorporating SCMs","volume":"359","author":"Hakeem","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119296","article-title":"Durability of ultra-high performance concrete\u2014A review","volume":"255","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121451","article-title":"Flexural response of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) hybrid bridge deck connections made with local materials","volume":"270","author":"Nasrin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127045","article-title":"Use of materials to lower the cost of ultra-high-performance concrete\u2014A review","volume":"327","author":"Shah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2014.09.024","article-title":"Development of an eco-friendly Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) with efficient cement and mineral admixtures uses","volume":"55","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2014.07.016","article-title":"Statistical mixture design approach for eco-efficient UHPC","volume":"55","author":"Ghafari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"De Larrard, F. (2009, January 19\u201321). Concrete optimisation with regard to packing density and rheology. Proceedings of the 3rd RILEM International Symposium on Rheology of Cement Suspensions Such as Fresh Concrete, Reykjavik, Iceland."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121698","article-title":"Optimized design of steel fibres reinforced ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) composites: Towards to dense structure and efficient fibre application","volume":"273","author":"Dingqiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"185","article-title":"The use of particle packing models to design ecological concrete","volume":"54","author":"Fennis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Heron"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"11","article-title":"Effective low-energy mixing procedure to develop high-fluidity cementitious pastes","volume":"21","author":"Ferdosian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mat\u00e9ria"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.08.019","article-title":"Eco-efficient ultra-high performance concrete development by means of response surface methodology","volume":"84","author":"Ferdosian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.064","article-title":"RSM-based model to predict the performance of self-compacting UHPC reinforced with hybrid steel micro-fibers","volume":"66","author":"Ghafari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"e00858","article-title":"Optimization design of ultrahigh-performance concrete based on interaction analysis of multiple factors","volume":"16","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2013.11.002","article-title":"Mix design and properties assessment of Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC)","volume":"56","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2003.12.023","article-title":"Effect of silica fume on steel fiber bond characteristics in reactive powder concrete","volume":"34","author":"Chan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Droll, K. (2004, January 13\u201315). Influence of additions on ultra high performance concretes\u2014Grain size optimisation. Proceedings of the The International Symposium on Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Kassel, Germany."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.046","article-title":"The study of using rice husk ash to produce ultra high performance concrete","volume":"25","author":"Ye","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.029","article-title":"Nano-mechanical behavior of a green ultra-high performance concrete","volume":"63","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"e157","article-title":"High-volume fly ash paste for developing ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)","volume":"29","author":"Ferdosian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cienc. e Tecnol. dos Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.102569","article-title":"Mechanical and durability properties of ultra-high performance concrete incorporated with various nano waste materials under different curing conditions","volume":"43","author":"Faried","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2014.02.051","article-title":"The effect of nanosilica addition on flowability, strength and transport properties of ultra high performance concrete","volume":"59","author":"Ghafari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4530","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13204530","article-title":"Influence of nanoparticles from waste materials on mechanical properties, durability and microstructure of uhpc","volume":"13","author":"Mostafa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.09.001","article-title":"Influence of nano-SiO2 addition on properties of hardened cement paste as compared with silica fume","volume":"21","author":"Qing","year":"2007","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.063","article-title":"Effect of nano-silica on the hydration and microstructure development of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) with a low binder amount","volume":"65","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2020.12.051","article-title":"UHPC evolution, development, and utilization in construction: A review","volume":"10","author":"Bajaber","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2001). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 3: Determination of Consistence of Fresh Mortar (by Flow Table) (Standard No. EN 1015-3)."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(1998). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 6: Determination of Bulk Density of Fresh Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-6)."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(1998). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 7: Determination of Air Content of Fresh Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-7)."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(1999). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 11: Determination of Flexural and Compressive Strength of Hardened Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-11)."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(1975). Hardened Concrete\u2014Determination of the Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete in Compression. Based on RILEM CPC 8\u2014Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete in Compression (Standard No. LNEC E 397). (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2007). Measuring the Flexural Tensile Strength (Limit of Proportionality (Lop), Residual) (Standard No. EN 14651)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2009). Grouts for tiles\u2014Part 4: Determination of Shrinkage (Standard No. EN 12808-4)."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3982","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14143982","article-title":"Shrinkage Mitigation of an Ultra-High Performance Concrete Submitted to Various Mixing and Curing Conditions","volume":"14","author":"Charron","year":"2021","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Matos, A., Nunes, S., Costa, C., and Aguiar, J. (2016, January 2\u20134). Autogenous shrinkage in ultra-high performance concrete. Proceedings of the National Meeting of Structural Concrete\u2014BE2016, Coimbra, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.3901\/JME.2001.12.037","article-title":"Influences of Fibers on Drying Shrinkage of Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composite","volume":"127","author":"Zhang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(1993). Concrete Chraracterization of Creep in Compressive Test (Standard No. LNEC E 399). (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/S0029-5493(00)00299-5","article-title":"Prediction of concrete creep and shrinkage: Past, present and future","volume":"203","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nucl. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Lopez, M. (2005). Creep and Shrinkage of High Performance Lightweight Concrete: A Multi-scale Investigation. [PhD Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Neville, A.M. (2012). Properties of Concrete, Pearson. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.02.018","article-title":"Comparison of tensile and compressive creep of fly ash concretes in the hardening phase","volume":"95","author":"Klausen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Neves, R., and Gon\u00e7alves, A. (2000, January 22\u201324). Steel fiber reinforced concrete. Properties related to its durability. Proceedings of the National Meeting of Structural Concrete\u2014BE2000, Porto, Portugal. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426921","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/426921","article-title":"Effect of the key mixture parameters on shrinkage of reactive powder concrete","volume":"2014","author":"Ahmad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-015-5769-4","article-title":"Ultrahigh performance concrete-properties, applications and perspectives","volume":"58","author":"Gu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Eppers, S., and M\u00fcller, C. (2008, January 5\u20137). Autogenous shrinkage strain of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel, Germany."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Russel, G.H., and Graybeal, B.A. (2013). Ultra-High Performance Concrete: A State-of-the-Art Report for the Bridge Community, US Department of Transportation."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Browne, R. (1991). Field Investigations: Site & Laboratory Tests: Maintenance Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures, CEEC."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Luping, T. (2005). Guideline for Practical Use of Methods for Testing the Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ingress, SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Yoo, J., Oh, B., Park, S., and Kim, S. (2010, January 23\u201328). Chloride penetration resistance properties of concrete containing mineral admixtures. Proceedings of the Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures Assessment. Durability, Monitoring and Retrofitting of Concrete Structures, Jeju, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.080","article-title":"Chloride migration in structural lightweight aggregate concrete produced with different binders","volume":"98","author":"Real","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1680\/macr.2007.59.9.651","article-title":"Effectiveness of fly ash activation on the corrosion performance of steel embedded in concrete","volume":"59","author":"Saraswathy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mag. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.049","article-title":"The effect of mineral admixtures on mechanical properties, chloride ion permeability and impermeability of self-compacting concrete","volume":"27","author":"Uysal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Cam\u00f5es, A. (2002, January 10\u201313). High performance concrete with fly ash incorporation. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2002, Recife, Brazil. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Carrinho, D. (2018). Resistance to Chloride Penetration in Different Types of Concrete Subjected to Prolonged Immersion Tests, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico-Universidade de Lisboa. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.07.144","article-title":"Effect of Fly Ash on the Durability Properties of High Strength Concrete","volume":"14","author":"Nath","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Method of Test for Surface Surface Resistivity Indication of Concrete\u2019s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration (Standard No. AASHTO T 358-15)."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.3151\/jact.19.519","article-title":"Enhanced mechanical and durability performances of low cement concrete with natural pozzolan addition","volume":"19","author":"Robalo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Concr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Cam\u00f5es, A., and Costeira, A. (2012, January 24\u201326). Durability of steel fiber reinforced concrete. Proceedings of the National Meeting of Structural Concrete\u2014BE2012, Porto, Portugal. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2008.03.008","article-title":"Characterisation of fibres distribution in a steel fibre reinforced concrete with electrical resistivity measurements","volume":"41","author":"Lataste","year":"2008","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2007). Concrete\u2014Part 1: Specification, Performance, Production and Conformity (Standard No. EN 206-1)."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2004). Determination of Diffusion Coefficient of Chlorides from Non- Steady-State Migration Test (Standard No. LNEC E 463). (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Coutinho, J. (2005). Improving the Durability of Concrete by Treating Formwork, FEUP. [1st ed.]. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Tuutti, K. (1982). Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, The Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2007). Concrete Methodology for Estimating the Concrete Performance Properties Allowing to Comply with the Design Working Life of The Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete Structures under the Environmental Exposures XC and XS. (Standard No. LNEC E 465). (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2010). Eurocode 2\u2013Design of Concrete Structures Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings (Standard No. EN 1992-1-1)."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/3\/2381\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:18:26Z","timestamp":1760120306000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/3\/2381"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,28]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["su15032381"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su15032381","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2071-1050"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,28]]}}}