{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T22:48:50Z","timestamp":1771454930835,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]],"date-time":"2023-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area (PRIMA) program","award":["1646"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1646"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Water security is a hot topic all over the world, due to global warming, climate change, natural calamities such as droughts and floods, overuse of water, and other factors. Water issues have been scientifically investigated from several perspectives, namely institutional, economic, social, environmental, managerial, and technological. However, the technological aspects of irrigation and water supply for smallholder farmers in the Mediterranean region have not been adequately addressed. This paper explores irrigation and water supply technologies for smallholder farmers in the selected Mediterranean countries (Egypt, Malta, Morocco, and Portugal). The methods of analysis are literature review, fieldwork, and observation. The literature survey reveals that Mediterranean countries share many common features in terms of climate, water and land resources, and development issues. Nevertheless, the selected countries in the Mediterranean region (Egypt, Malta, Morocco, and Portugal) differ in terms of type of crops, water management regulations, labor force availability, financial sustainability, and economic approaches. These remarks signal the need for applying a specific approach in selecting a technology for irrigation and water supply according to the regional context. Additionally, the financial and economic perspectives of the three key technologies (i.e., SLECI, desalination technology, and engineering constructed wetlands) require further analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su15086875","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,20]],"date-time":"2023-04-20T03:25:11Z","timestamp":1681961111000},"page":"6875","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Exploring Irrigation and Water Supply Technologies for Smallholder Farmers in the Mediterranean Region"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1119-2744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dina","family":"Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Management Studies of Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico (CEG-IST), University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"NECE\u2013Research Center in Business Sciences, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6229-6148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joao Carlos Correia","family":"Leitao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, NECE\u2013Research Center in Business Sciences, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1691-1709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Dinis","family":"Gaspar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Cristina","family":"Fael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6681-2525","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabel","family":"Falorca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2260-1790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wael","family":"Khairy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Department, Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development, Cairo 11785, Egypt"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0963-7038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadya","family":"Wahid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni-Mellal 23000, Morocco"}]},{"given":"Hicham","family":"El Yousfi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Legal, Economic and Social Sciences Souissi, Universit\u00e9 Mohammed V de Rabat, Rabat 10000, Morocco"}]},{"given":"Bassou","family":"Bouazzama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Research Agronomics of Morocco, Rabat 10090, Morocco"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Siering","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Wismar, 23966 Wismar, Germany"}]},{"given":"Harald","family":"Hansmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Polymer- und Produktionstechnologien e. V., 23966 Wismar, Germany"}]},{"given":"Jelena","family":"Zascerinska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Wismar, 23966 Wismar, Germany"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Camilleri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology, QRM 9075 Paola, Malta"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Busuttil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology, QRM 9075 Paola, Malta"}]},{"given":"Malcolm","family":"Borg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology, QRM 9075 Paola, Malta"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Mizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EcoGozo Directorate, Victoria, VCT 1335 Gozo, Malta"}]},{"given":"Reno","family":"Micallef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EcoGozo Directorate, Victoria, VCT 1335 Gozo, Malta"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Cutajar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EcoGozo Directorate, Victoria, VCT 1335 Gozo, Malta"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-019-01494-8","article-title":"Adaptations in irrigated agriculture in the Mediterranean region: An overview and spatial analysis of implemented strategies","volume":"19","author":"Harmanny","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area 46 (PRIMA) Programme (2022, December 01). MED-WET Project \u201cImproving MEDiterranean Irrigation and Water Supply for Small-Holder Farmers by Providing Efficient, Low-Cost and Nature-Based Technologies and Practices. Available online: https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/people\/Med-Wet\/100079229251147\/?paipv=0&eav=AfaBdjOk3-K3_h0eEon2FsstDTdgtasBdJYXw5LD3c1eFo8opObQ2HO4ON5Yca403vk&_rdr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124014","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/9\/12\/124014","article-title":"Water and energy footprint of irrigated agriculture in the Mediterranean region","volume":"9","author":"Daccache","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Homobono, T., Guimar\u00e3es, M.H., Esgalhado, C., and Madureira, L. (2022). Water Governance in Mediterranean Farming Systems through the Social-Ecological Systems Framework\u2014An Empirical Case in Southern Portugal. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11020178"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molle, F., Sanchis-Ibor, C., and Avell\u00e0-Reus, L. (2019). Irrigation in the Mediterranean, Springer. Global Issues in Water Policy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-03698-0"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2011.01.003","article-title":"Hydrological and erosive consequences of farmland abandonment in Europe, with special reference to the Mediterranean region\u2014A review","volume":"140","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate E Space, Security & Migration, Disaster Risk Management Unit\u2014Drought Team (2022). Drought in Western Mediterranean February 2022, GDO Analytical Report; Publication Office of the Euroepan Union."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"M\u00e9lanie, T. (2007). L\u2019agriculture Nouvelle D\u00e9fis (\u00c9dition), L\u2019Institut National de la Statistique et des \u00c9tudes \u00c9conomiques."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plan Bleu (2008). Les Perspectives du Plan Bleu sur le D\u00e9veloppement Durable en M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e, Plan Bleu.","DOI":"10.3917\/scpo.cihea.2009.01"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Fernandez, S., and Mouli\u00e9rac, A. (2010). \u00c9valuation \u00c9conomique de la Gestion de la Demande en Eau en M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e, Plan Bleu, Centre D\u2019activit\u00e9s R\u00e9gionales, PNUE, Environnement et D\u00e9veloppement en M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2019.07.039","article-title":"Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines","volume":"104","author":"Snyder","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.3233\/WOR-2010-0998","article-title":"Using scoping literature reviews as a means of understanding and interpreting existing literature","volume":"35","author":"Rumrill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Work"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahrens, A., and Zascerinska, J. (2021). Social Sciences\u2019 Transformation in Light of COVID-19. Education Reform: Education Content Research and Implementation Problems, Rezekne Academy of Technologies.","DOI":"10.17770\/er2021.1.6495"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Baczko, A., and Dorronsoro, G. (2020, November 19). The Ethical, Epistemological, and Conceptual Need to Resume Fieldwork. Available online: https:\/\/items.ssrc.org\/covid-19-and-the-social-sciences\/social-research-and-insecurity\/the-ethical-epistemological-and-conceptual-need-to-resume-fieldwork\/."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Za\u0161\u010derinska, J. (2013). Development of Students\u2019 Communicative Competence within English for Academic Purposes Studies, Mensch & Buch Verlag."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"McCall, G.J., and Simmons, J.L. (1969). Issues in Participant Observation, Reading, Mass, Addison Wesley."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahrens, A., and Za\u0161\u010derinska, J. (2014, January 28\u201330). A Framework for Selecting Sampe Size in Educational Research on e-Business Application. Proceedings of the ICE-B 2014 11th International Conference on E-Business, Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.5220\/0005020000390046"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Joint Mediterranean EUWI\/WFD Process (2022, November 24). Mediterranean Groundwater Report. Technical Report on Groundwater Management in the Mediterranean and the Water Framework Directive. Produced by the Mediterranean Groundwater Working Group (MED-EUWI WG ON GROUNDWATER) (15 February 2007). Available online: http:\/\/www.semide.net\/initiatives\/medeuwi\/JP\/GroundWater."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2022, November 24). MWRI (Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation). National Water RESOURCES plan (NWRP)\u2014Water Security for All (2017\u20132030\u20132037), Egypt. Available online: http:\/\/gis.nacse.org\/rewab\/docs\/National_Water_Resources_Plan_2017_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Post, V.E.A., Eichholzm, M., and Brentf\u00fchrer, R. (2018). Groundwater Management in Coastal Zones, Bundesanstalt f\u00fcr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR)."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"10873","article-title":"A review of seawater intrusion in the Nile Delta groundwater system\u2014The basis for assessing impacts due to climate changes and water resources development","volume":"10","author":"Mabrouk","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Official Website of the Government of Egypt (2023, April 04). Available online: https:\/\/www.presidency.eg\/EN\/\u0645\u0635\u0631\/\u062e\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0629-\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0641\u0638\u0627\u062a\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"AbuZeid, K., and Elrawady, M. (2022, November 24). The 2030 Strategic Vision for Treated Wastewater Reuse in Egypt. Water Resources Management Program, CEDARE. Available online: http:\/\/web.cedare.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2005\/05\/2030-National-Vision-for-Wastewater-Re-use-in-Egypt.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Reymond, P., Demars, C., Papangelou, A., Tawfik, M.H., Hassan, K., Wahaab, R.A., and Moussa, M. (2014). Small-Scale Sanitation in the Nile Delta: Base-Line Data and Current Practices, ESRISS Egyptian\u2013Swiss Research on Innovations in Sustainable Sanitation, Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Development (MHUUD). [2nd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/hcww.com.eg\/hcwwbook\/ESRISS\/5_Data_Baseline\/5_Baseline_Data_Report_2nd_ed.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"ECP 501 (2015). Egyptian Code of Practice for the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater for Agricultural Purposes, The Ministry of Housing Utilities and Urban Communities. (In Arabic)."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"AbuZeid, K. (2016). The Water, Energy, and Food Security Nexus in the Arab Region, Springer."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2020.106404","article-title":"New technologies and practical approaches to improve irrigation management of open field vegetable crops","volume":"242","author":"Zinkernagel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2021.07.010","article-title":"Low-cost Edge Computing devices and novel user interfaces for monitoring pivot irrigation systems based on Internet of Things and LoRaWAN technologies","volume":"223","author":"Matilla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Maazouz, S. (2016). Le D\u00e9veloppement de L\u2019irrigation Durable au Maroc, AgriMaroc."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Global Yield Cap Atlas (2022, November 24). Morocco. Available online: https:\/\/www.yieldgap.org\/Morocco."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ministry of Agriculture (2022, November 24). Plan Maroc Vert: Premi\u00e8res Perspectives sur la Strat\u00e9gie Agricole. Available online: http:\/\/agrimaroc.net\/Plan_Maroc_Vert.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"109","article-title":"A Historical Overview of Evolution of the Irrigated Agriculture Sector in Morocco","volume":"14","author":"Wahid","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Reg. Econ. Soc. Dev."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Naji, A., and Morocco Generation Green 2020\u20132030 (2022, November 24). To Boosts the Agriculture Sector. Available online: https:\/\/www.meer.com\/en\/61716-morocco-generation-green-2020-2030."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"PMV (2018). Le Plan Maroc Vert Bilan et Impacts, Minist\u00e8re D\u2019agriculture, de P\u00eache Maritime et de D\u00e9veloppement Rural, D\u2019eau et de For\u00eat."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139477","article-title":"Impacts of climate change on reservoir water availability, quality and irrigation needs in a water scarce Mediterranean region (southern Portugal)","volume":"736","author":"Diogo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Girona, J., Casades\u00fas, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J., Arbon\u00e9s, A., L\u00f3pez, G., Rufaty, J., and Marsal, J. (2011, January 11\u201312). Eficiencia productiva del agua en funci\u00f3n de la tecnolog\u00eda y el conocimiento aplicados al manejo del riego en diferentes cultivos. Proceedings of the Congreso Agricultura, Agua y Energ\u00eda: Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda, Pol\u00edtica y Planificaci\u00f3n del Agua y de la Energ\u00eda en los Regad\u00edos, Aspectos Socioecon\u00f3micos y Ambientales, Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Silva Costa, F. (2018). Water policy(ies) in Portugal: Intertia and challenges within the European framework. Mediterr. Geogr., 130.","DOI":"10.4000\/mediterranee.10078"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Veiga da Cunha, L., Gon\u00e7alves, A.S., Figueiredo, V.A., and Lino, M. (1980). A Gest\u00e3o da \u00c1gua: Princ\u00edpios Fundamentais e sua Aplica\u00e7\u00e3o em Portugal, Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Calouste Gulbenkian."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Schmidt, L., and Ferreira, J.G. (2014, January 5\u20138). Avan\u00e7os e desafios da governan\u00e7a da \u00e1gua na Europa no contexto da aplica\u00e7\u00e3o da directiva quadro da \u00e1gua. Proceedings of the 12\u00ba Congresso da \u00c1gua\/16\u00ba Enasb\/XVI Silubesa, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"APA (2015). Plano Nacional da \u00c1gua, Ag\u00eancia Portuguesa do Ambiente."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Pato, J. (2013). Pol\u00edticas P\u00fablicas da \u00c1gua em Portugal: Do Paradigma Hidr\u00e1ulico \u00e0 Modernidade Tardia, An\u00e1lise Social, Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Henriques, A.G.O. (2004, January 8\u201312). direito internacional das \u00e1guas e a conven\u00e7\u00e3o de albufeira de 1998 sobre as bacias hidrogr\u00e1ficas luso-espanholas. Proceedings of the 7th Congresso da \u00c1gua, LNEC, Lisboa, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Barreira, A. (2007). La Gesti\u00f3n de las Cuencas Hispano-Portuguesas: El Convenio de Albufeira, Fundaci\u00f3n Nueva Cultura del Agua."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Soares, E.Z. (2016). Os Planos de Gest\u00e3o de Regi\u00e3o Hidrogr\u00e1fica em Portugal Continental: Contributo Para o Desenvolvimento de um Instrumento para a Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o de Planos de Recursos H\u00eddricos. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade do Minho]."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Barreira, A. (2008, January 24). Portuguese-Spanish river basins management: The Albufeira Convention. Proceedings of the Panel Cient\u00edfico-T\u00e9cnico de Seguimiento de la Pol\u00edtica de Aguas, \u201cConvenio Universidad de Sevilla-Ministerio de Medio th Ambiente\u201d\u2014Presentation of Results, Organized by the New Water Culture Foundation, Seville, Spain. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"1333","article-title":"Altera\u00e7\u00f5es Clim\u00e1ticas e Gest\u00e3o da \u00c1gua em Portugal","volume":"6","author":"Lopes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Geogr. F\u00edsica"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, R.M.B., Fernandes, L.F.S., Cortes, R.M.V., and Pacheco, F.A.L. (2019). Development of a Hydrologic and Water Allocation Model to Assess Water Availability in the Sabor River Basin (Portugal). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16132419"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"18","article-title":"Contributos da tecnologia para a sustentabilidade da rega na fruticultura do Algarve","volume":"140","author":"Galego","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Assoc. Port. Hortic."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2014.03.010","article-title":"Drip vs. surface irrigation: A comparison focussing on water saving and economic returns using multicriteria analysis applied to cotton","volume":"122","author":"Darouich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"81","article-title":"Riego deficitario controlado en \u2018Clementina de Nules\u2019. I. Efectos sobre la producci\u00f3n y la calidad de la fruta","volume":"1","author":"Castel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Span. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2013.11.002","article-title":"Effects of deficit irrigation in different fruit growth stages on \u2018Star Ruby\u2019 grapefruit trees in semi-arid conditions","volume":"133","author":"Robles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2021.107216","article-title":"Towards a sustainable viticulture: The combination of deficit irrigation strategies and agroecological practices in Mediterranean vineyards. A review and update","volume":"259","author":"Romero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabral, I.L., Carneiro, A., Nogueira, T., and Queiroz, J. (2021). Regulated Deficit Irrigation and Its Effects on Yield and Quality of Vitis vinifera L., Touriga Francesa in a Hot Climate Area (Douro Region, Portugal). Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11080774"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s13593-014-0280-z","article-title":"Improving water use efficiency of vineyards in semi-arid regions. A review","volume":"35","author":"Medrano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agron. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(98)00123-1","article-title":"Regional analysis of irrigation water requirements using kriging: Application to potato crop (Solanum tuberosum L.) at Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes","volume":"40","author":"Sousa","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2022, December 01). National Statistics Office Malta, Available online: https:\/\/nso.gov.mt\/en\/Pages\/NSO-Home.aspx."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Galdies, C. (2022). The State of the Climate 2022\u2014A Multidecadal Report and Assessment of Malta\u2019s Climate, National Statistics Office."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leal Filho, W., Djekic, I., Smetana, S., and Kovaleva, M. (2022). Handbook of Climate Change Across the Food Supply Chain, Springer. Climate Change Management.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-87934-1"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"3","article-title":"Integrated Water Resources Management in the Maltese Islands","volume":"9","author":"Sapiano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acque Sotter. Ital. J. Groundw."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2006). MaltaWater Resources Review, FAO."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Lang, D.M. (1960). Soils of Malta and Gozo, H.M. Stationary Office (Colonial Office)."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Buhajar, K. (2022, December 01). Water Management in Medieval and Early Modern Malta. Available online: https:\/\/www.um.edu.mt\/library\/oar\/bitstream\/123456789\/26139\/1\/Water%20management%20in%20Medieval%20and%20Early%20Modern%20Malta.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartfiel, L., Soupir, M., and Kanwar, R.S. (2020). Malta\u2019s Water Scarcity Challenges: Past, Present, and Future Mitigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Supplies. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12239835"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"025","article-title":"Water desalination technologies utilizing conventional and renewable energy sources","volume":"9","author":"Shatat","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Low-Carbon Technol."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"G\u00e1lvez, J.B., Sixto Malato Rodr\u00edguez, E., Vassilis, G.D., Belessiotis, S., Bhattacharya, C., and Kumar, S. (2010). Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems: Thermal Systems and Desalination Plants, UNESCO. Available online: https:\/\/www.eolss.net\/ebooklib\/bookinfo\/solar-energy-conversion-photoenergy-system-thermal-systems-desalination-plants.aspx."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2023, April 04). Wetlands Fundamental Mechanics of Wetlands Functions, Slide 3. Available online: https:\/\/player.slideplayer.com\/15\/4629350\/data\/images\/img0.jpg."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/8\/6875\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:19:05Z","timestamp":1760123945000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/8\/6875"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["su15086875"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su15086875","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]}}}