{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T11:22:49Z","timestamp":1774610569592,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691712000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (Portugal)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (Portugal)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/89258\/2012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/89258\/2012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (Portugal)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BPD\/89903\/2012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BPD\/89903\/2012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Since the 1990s, studies and pilot tests have been conducted to reduce traffic, accidents, and pollution due to urban freight transport (UFT). These ended up in several policies, regulations, and restrictions for UFT, such as low emission zones, delivery time windows, and vehicle size and weight restrictions. However, issues in UFT under regulatory measures still persist. This study introduces an optimization framework for deriving an optimal combination of various types of vehicles with different capacities for vehicle replacement with UFT. This framework allows an understanding of how an urban freight company with a limited budget efficiently satisfies its freight demand within an urban area in the presence of regulatory measures by urban administrators. The introduced formulation, which is mixed-integer linear programming, will assist the operator in choosing the best investment strategy for introducing new vehicles of certain types and sizes, for operation in different zones, into its fleet while gaining economic benefits and having a positive impact on the liveability of the urban area. Furthermore, an elasticity analysis is performed to consider the effects of specific uncertain parameters on the total cost. The numerical results show that the share of electric vehicles in the fleet increases, and they are more competitive than diesel vehicles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su151612266","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T10:20:16Z","timestamp":1691749216000},"page":"12266","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Optimizing Vehicle Replacement in Sustainable Urban Freight Transportation Subject to Presence of Regulatory Measures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Parisa","family":"Ahani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1207-5854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Am\u00edlcar","family":"Arantes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rohollah","family":"Garmanjani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Mathematics and Applications (NOVA Math), FCT NOVA, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6948-8348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Melo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEiiA, Center of Engineering and Development, Av. Dom Afonso Henriques 1825, 4450-017 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2020, June 09). European Commission Urbanisation Worldwide. Available online: https:\/\/knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu\/foresight\/topic\/continuing-urbanisation\/urbanisation-worldwide_en."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s12544-019-0349-5","article-title":"Measuring Delivery Route Cost Trade-offs between Electric-Assist Cargo Bicycles and Delivery Trucks in Dense Urban Areas","volume":"11","author":"Sheth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Transp. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bosona, T. (2020). Urban Freight Last Mile Logistics\u2014Challenges and Opportunities to Improve Sustainability: A Literature Review. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12218769"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"22","article-title":"City Logistics, Urban Goods Distribution and Last Mile Delivery and Collection","volume":"18","author":"Cardenas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compet. Regul. Netw. Ind."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1108\/IJPDLM-02-2017-0101","article-title":"E-Fulfilment and Distribution in Omni-Channel Retailing: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"48","author":"Melacini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1080\/15568318.2016.1196404","article-title":"The 4 A\u2019s of Sustainable City Distribution: Innovative Solutions and Challenges Ahead","volume":"11","author":"Macharis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Transp."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Letnik, T., Han\u017ei\u010d, K., Luppino, G., and Mencinger, M. (2022). Impact of Logistics Trends on Freight Transport Development in Urban Areas. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su142416551"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riccardi, M.R., Mauriello, F., Sarkar, S., Galante, F., Scarano, A., and Montella, A. (2022). Parametric and Non-Parametric Analyses for Pedestrian Crash Severity Prediction in Great Britain. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14063188"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montella, A., Marzano, V., Mauriello, F., Vitillo, R., Fasanelli, R., Pernetti, M., and Galante, F. (2019). Development of Macro-Level Safety Performance Functions in the City of Naples. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11071871"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1528","DOI":"10.1080\/09654313.2012.722954","article-title":"The Limits of Public Policy Intervention in Urban Logistics: Lessons from Vicenza (Italy)","volume":"21","author":"Ville","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Plan. Stud."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1","article-title":"Urban Freight Transport from a Local Authority Perspective-A Literature Review","volume":"54","author":"Lindholm","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Transp.-Trasp. Eur."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"133","article-title":"Urban Freight Transport Policies in Rome: Lessons Learned and the Road Ahead","volume":"8","author":"Nuzzolo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Urban."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maxner, T., Chiara, G.D., and Goodchild, A. (2022). Identifying the Challenges to Sustainable Urban Last-Mile Deliveries: Perspectives from Public and Private Stakeholders. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14084701"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mas\u0142owski, D., Kuli\u0144ska, E., and Komada, G. (2022). Impact of Alternative Forms of Transport on Urban Freight Congestion. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su141710972"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Enhancing the Sustainability of Urban Freight Transport and Logistics","volume":"44","author":"Browne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transp. Commun. Bull. Asia Pacific"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Comi, A., Site, P.D., Filippi, F., Marcucci, E., and Nuzzolo, A. (2008, January 13\u201315). Differentiated Regulation of Urban Freight Traffic: Conceptual Framework and Examples from Italy. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference of Hong Kong Society for Transportation Studies: Transportation and Management, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2012.04.013","article-title":"Parametric Analysis of Technology and Policy Tradeoffs for Conventional and Electric Light-Duty Vehicles","volume":"46","author":"Barter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"551","article-title":"Electrifying Light Commercial Vehicles for City Logistics? A Total Cost of Ownership Analysis","volume":"15","author":"Lebeau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Transp. Infrastruct. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Crist, P. (2012). Elecric Vehicles Revisited-Costs, Subsidies and Prospects, OECD Publishing."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.3141\/2410-09","article-title":"Analysis of Competitiveness of Freight Tricycle Delivery Services in Urban Areas","volume":"2410","author":"Tipagornwong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2012.06.007","article-title":"An Economic and Technological Analysis of the Key Factors Affecting the Competitiveness of Electric Commercial Vehicles: A Case Study from the USA Market","volume":"26","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotzab, H., Pannek, J., and Thoben, K.D. (2016). Dynamics in Logistics-Proceedings of the 4th International Conference LDIC, 2014, Bremen, Germany, 10\u201314 February 2014, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-23512-7"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"7270","article-title":"Optimization of Battery-Ultracapacitor for Electrically Operated Vehicle for Urban Driving Cycle in India","volume":"9","author":"Kokate","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2006.05.005","article-title":"Goods Transport in Large European Cities: Difficult to Organize, Difficult to Modernize","volume":"41","author":"Dablanc","year":"2007","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tre.2018.05.002","article-title":"Urban Freight Transport Using Passenger Rail Network: Scientific Issues and Quantitative Analysis","volume":"115","author":"Behiri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part E Logist. Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Nina, M. (2010). Introduction of Electric Vehicles in Portugal-A Cost-Benefit Analysis, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1108\/13552519910257050","article-title":"Capital Equipment Replacement Model for a Fleet with Variable Size","volume":"5","author":"Scarf","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Qual. Maint. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tre.2009.04.015","article-title":"Optimisation of the Exploitation Period of Individual Vehicles in Freight Transportation Companies","volume":"45","author":"Redmer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part E Logist. Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/0198-9715(82)90006-0","article-title":"A Network Simulation Model for Police Patrol Vehicle Maintenance and Replacement Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Rees","year":"1982","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2005.02.005","article-title":"A Vehicle Replacement Policy for Motor Carriers in an Unsteady Economy","volume":"39","author":"Suzuki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5407","DOI":"10.1021\/es0345221","article-title":"Life Cycle Optimization of Automobile Replacement: Model and Application","volume":"37","author":"Kim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1080\/03081060.2020.1763656","article-title":"An Optimization Model for Bus Fleet Replacement with Budgetary and Environmental Constraints","volume":"43","author":"Emiliano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Plan. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-013-0446-2","article-title":"Importance and Ranking Evaluation of Delay Factors for Development Construction Projects in Benin","volume":"17","author":"Akogbe","year":"2013","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2016.10.001","article-title":"Mixed Bus Fleet Management Strategy for Minimizing Overall and Emissions External Costs","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1108\/JQME-04-2020-0026","article-title":"Strategic Vehicle Fleet Management\u2013a Joint Solution of Make-or-Buy, Composition and Replacement Problems","volume":"28","author":"Redmer","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Qual. Maint. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2016.09.001","article-title":"Fleet Replacement Decisions under Demand and Fuel Price Uncertainties","volume":"60","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.17531\/ein.2017.3.6","article-title":"An Integrated Econometric Model for Bus Replacement and Determination of Reserve Fleet Size Based on Predictive Maintenance","volume":"19","author":"Raposo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eksploat. I Niezawodn."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trb.2015.12.010","article-title":"The Impact of Depot Location, Fleet Composition and Routing on Emissions in City Logistics","volume":"84","author":"Jabali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part B Methodol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1287\/trsc.21.3.171","article-title":"Modeling Distribution Problems with Time Windows: Part I","volume":"21","author":"Daganzo","year":"1987","journal-title":"Transp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.2307\/2967486","article-title":"The Concept of Arc Elasticity of Demand: I","volume":"1","author":"Allen","year":"1934","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2016.08.019","article-title":"A Portfolio Approach for Optimal Fleet Replacement toward Sustainable Urban Freight Transportation","volume":"48","author":"Ahani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Ghiani, G., Laporte, G., and Musmanno, R. (2022). Introduction to Logistics Systems Management, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2020, July 06). Meusalario.pt Compare Seu Sal\u00e1rio. Available online: https:\/\/meusalario.pt\/salario\/compare-seu-salario?job-id=8322020000000\/%5C#\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2020, May 06). NISSAN NISSAN E-NV200. Available online: https:\/\/www.nissan.pt\/veiculos\/novos-veiculos\/e-nv200\/preco-e-versoes.html."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2020, July 22). ACEA Average Age of the EU Vehicle Fleet, by Country. Available online: https:\/\/www.acea.auto\/figure\/average-age-of-eu-vehicle-fleet-by-country\/."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2020, July 22). PORDATA Consumo de Energia El\u00e9trica: Total e Por Setor de Atividade Econ\u00f3mica. Available online: https:\/\/www.pordata.pt\/Portugal."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Wang, Z., Liu, P., Cui, D., and Li, X. (2019, January 12\u201315). Analysis on Influence Factors of Energy Consumption of Electric Vehicles Based on Real-World Driving Data. Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Energy 2019, V\u00e4ster\u00e5s, Sweden.","DOI":"10.46855\/energy-proceedings-2905"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2019.05.001","article-title":"Multivariate Analysis of Fuel Consumption Related to Eco-Driving: Interaction of Driving Patterns and External Factors","volume":"72","author":"Lois","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Adeniran, I.O. (2020). The Impacts of Sustainable Concepts in Urban Freight Distribution\u2014A Courier, Express and Parcel Case Study, TUM-Technische Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.127746","article-title":"Exploration on the Emissions and Catalytic Reactors Interactions of a Non-Road Diesel Engine through Experiment and System Level Simulation","volume":"342","author":"Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1007\/s10640-020-00441-0","article-title":"COVID-19 Tests the Market Stability Reserve","volume":"76","author":"Gerlagh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Resour. Econ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8022","DOI":"10.1021\/es400179w","article-title":"Electric Urban Delivery Trucks: Energy Use, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Cost-Effectiveness","volume":"47","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2023, April 15). City of Toronto-Fleet Services 2017 Performance Measurement & Benchmarking Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.toronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/05\/8f5d-FleetServices2017-PMBR-Finalv2-AODA.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2023, April 15). Electrification Coalition Fleet Electrification Roadmap: Revolutionizing Transportation and Achieving Energy Security. Available online: https:\/\/www.electrificationcoalition.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/EC-Fleet-Roadmap-screen.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2012.03.012","article-title":"Measuring Supply Chain Cost","volume":"143","author":"Pettersson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/16\/12266\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:31:17Z","timestamp":1760128277000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/15\/16\/12266"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["su151612266"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su151612266","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]}}}