{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T08:08:38Z","timestamp":1776413318729,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]],"date-time":"2023-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CERIS Research Centre, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa","award":["SFRH\/BD\/147856\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/147856\/2019"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/147856\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/147856\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carbon capture storage and utilization is the main technology for reducing CO2 emissions, accounting for 56% of the overall reduction required to achieve the carbon neutrality of concrete by 2050. Different strategies have been explored in cement-based materials towards this end, namely, in concrete. However, the impact on carbonated concrete differs depending on the moment at which cementitious material comes into contact with CO2, either in terms of CO2 uptake or in terms of its lifetime performance. This paper presents three leading strategies that rely on the direct carbonation of a cementitious binder to reduce the carbon footprint. For each strategy, the effect of the carbonation process on the kinetics and microstructure of cementitious paste, the estimation of its carbon capture capability and the application feasibility are discussed. Accelerated carbonation curing is one approach widely studied by academics. However, despite some CO2 capture effectiveness, its industrial processing is still a long way off. A second strategy consists of incorporating CO2 during the mixing process, which has been shown to speed up the hardening reactions of cement. However, this effect is of short term and may negatively affect its long-term performance. Finally, the carbonation of hydrated cement waste is shown to be a very promising strategy that enables the recycling of hydrated cement waste as a supplementary cementitious material which also has a potentially high CO2 uptake. The integrated analysis of the three strategies highlights a wide variability in the reduction of CO2 emissions from 1% to 37% in relation to current emissions, where the best result was achieved using carbonated waste (third strategy) in the production of a concrete subjected to carbonation curing (first strategy).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su16010361","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,31]],"date-time":"2023-12-31T06:00:21Z","timestamp":1704002421000},"page":"361","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Strategies for OPC Paste Carbonation: Relationship between Microstructure, Performance and Net CO2 Balance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5751-8877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8435-9816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita","family":"Nogueira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0994-4417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Alexandre","family":"Bogas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"International Energy Agency and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2009). Cement Technology Roadmap 2009: Carbon Emissions Reductions up to 2050."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2018.08.003","article-title":"The impacts of policies to reduce CO2 emission within the concrete supply chain","volume":"101","author":"Filippo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"International Energy Agency and Cement Sustainability Initiative (2018). Technology Roadmap: Low-Carbon Transition in the Cement Industry."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"United Nations Environment Programme, Scrivener, K.L., John, V.M., and Gartner, E.M. (2018). Eco-efficient cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low CO2 cement-based materials industry. Cem. Concr. Res., 114, 2\u201326.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.03.015"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101062","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2019.101062","article-title":"Towards carbon-neutral construction materials: Carbonation of cement-based materials and the future perspective","volume":"28","author":"Lippiatt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"61","article-title":"Reducing the environmental impact of concrete: Concrete can be durable and environmentally friendly","volume":"10","author":"Metha","year":"2001","journal-title":"Concr. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.086","article-title":"A study on development of recycled cement made from waste cementitious powder","volume":"83","author":"Kwon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.06.009","article-title":"The CO2 uptake of concrete in a 100 year perspective","volume":"37","author":"Pade","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Re"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2840","article-title":"Substantial global carbon uptake by cement carbonation","volume":"9","author":"Xi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.01.023","article-title":"Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) emissions: A comparison between geopolymer and OPC cement concrete","volume":"43","author":"Turner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"The European Cement Association (2018). Cementing the European Green Deal: Reaching Climate Neutrality along the Cement and Concrete Value Chain by 2050, CEMBUREAU."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Global Cement and Concrete Association (2020). Concrete Future: The GCCA 2050 Cement and Concrete Industry Roadmap for Net Zero Concrete, GCCA."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2021, June 08). Low Emissions Intensity Lime & Cement\u2014Leilac, Project\u2014Leilac. Available online: https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/654465."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2020.11.020","article-title":"Challenges against CO2 abatement strategies in cement industry: A review","volume":"104","author":"Benhelal","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2009.09.031","article-title":"Cement production technology improvement compared to factor 4 objectives","volume":"40","author":"Habert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.017","article-title":"Review on recent advances in CO2 utilization and sequestration technologies in cement-based materials","volume":"127","author":"Jang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2017.07.003","article-title":"Review on carbonation curing of cement-based materials","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107290","article-title":"The cement plant of tomorrow","volume":"173","author":"Schneider","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"European Comission, Joint Research Centre, Publications Office (2023, August 18). Decarbonisation Options for the Cement Industry, Available online: https:\/\/data.europa.eu\/doi\/10.2760\/174037."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107284","article-title":"Total recycling of concrete waste using accelerated carbonation: A review","volume":"173","author":"Poon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125646","article-title":"Strategies to accelerate CO2 sequestration of cement-based materials and their application prospects","volume":"314","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2022.121512","article-title":"Mineralization and utilization of CO2 in construction and demolition wastes recycling for building materials: A systematic review of recycled concrete aggregate and recycled hardened cement powder","volume":"298","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2022.102000","article-title":"An overview of utilizing CO2 for accelerated carbonation treatment in the concrete industry","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-022-01518-6","article-title":"Mineral carbonation using alkaline waste and byproducts to reduce CO2 emissions in Taiwan","volume":"21","author":"Ho","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122671","article-title":"Accelerated carbonation technology for enhanced treatment of recycled concrete aggregates: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"282","author":"Pu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118903","article-title":"Utilising CO2 technologies for recycled aggregate concrete: A critical review","volume":"250","author":"Tam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.129093","article-title":"CO2 mineral carbonation using industrial solid wastes: A review of recent developments","volume":"416","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118873","article-title":"Thermoactivated cementitious materials\u2014A review","volume":"250","author":"Bogas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-075065686-3\/50277-9","article-title":"Chapter 1\u2014Cements","volume":"Volume 3","author":"Moir","year":"2003","journal-title":"Advance Concret Technology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hewlett, P.C., and Liska, M. (2019). Lea\u2019s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Elsevier Ltd.. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-100773-0.00014-9"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Neville, A.M. (2012). Properties of Concrete, Prentice Hall. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1021\/ed080p623","article-title":"Cement: Its chemistry and properties","volume":"80","author":"MacLaren","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1162\/108819802320971650","article-title":"Cement Manufacture and the Environment Part I: Chemistry and Technology","volume":"6","author":"Padovani","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Beaudoin, J., and Odler, I. (2019). Lea\u2019s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Elsevier Ltd.. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijggc.2010.11.006","article-title":"Review of integrity of existing wells in realtion to CO2 geological storage: What do we know?","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.05.025","article-title":"Advances in understanding hydration of Portland cement","volume":"78","author":"Scrivener","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2010.09.011","article-title":"Mechanisms of cement hydration","volume":"41","author":"Bullard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2010.01.012","article-title":"Dissolution theory applied to the induction period in alite hydration","volume":"40","author":"Juilland","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.21809\/rilemtechlett.2017.47","article-title":"Advances in dissolution understanding and their implications for cement hydration","volume":"2","author":"Juilland","year":"2017","journal-title":"RILEM Tecnhical Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.105823","article-title":"Advances in understanding cement hydration mechanisms","volume":"124","author":"Scrivener","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2894","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.7b04245","article-title":"Two-Step Nucleation Process of Calcium Silicate Hydrate, the Nanobrick of Cement","volume":"30","author":"Krautwurst","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-0618(00)00058-1","article-title":"Assessment of the durability of concrete from its permeation properties: A review","volume":"15","author":"Basheer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032011","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/263\/3\/032011","article-title":"A review on carbonation study in concrete","volume":"263","author":"Rao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"04014245","article-title":"Carbonation-Induced and Chloride-Induced Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Structures","volume":"27","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2014.01.001","article-title":"An alternative mechanism for accelerated carbon sequestration in concrete","volume":"12","author":"Haselbach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.005","article-title":"Influence of the carbon dioxide concentration on the resistance to carbonation of concrete","volume":"67","author":"Visser","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.138","article-title":"Carbonation of cement paste: Understanding, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"117","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121660","article-title":"New perspectives on utilization of CO2 sequestration technologies in cement-based materials","volume":"272","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2021.106687","article-title":"Mechanisms of carbonation hydration hardening in Portland cements","volume":"152","author":"Zajac","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zajac, M., Skocek, J., Haha, M.B., and Deja, J. (2022). CO2 Mineralization Methods in Cement and Concrete Industry. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15103597"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000462","article-title":"Carbonation Curing versus Steam Curing for Precast Concrete Production","volume":"24","author":"Rostami","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2020.101428","article-title":"Fundamental understanding of carbonation curing and durability of carbonation-cured cement-based composites: A review","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.080","article-title":"Carbonation of cement-based materials: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"120","author":"Ashraf","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.048","article-title":"Ealy age carbonation curing for precast reinforced concretes","volume":"113","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsc.2022.100672","article-title":"CO2 storage in cement and concrete by mineral carbonation","volume":"38","author":"Winnefeld","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"441","article-title":"Effect of Initial Curing on Carbonation of Lightweight Concrete Masonry Units","volume":"110","author":"Shao","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACI Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117122","article-title":"Effect of pre-carbonation hydration on long-term hydration of carbonation-cured cement-based materials","volume":"231","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2018.03.007","article-title":"Carbon dioxide as an admixture for better performance of OPC-based concrete","volume":"25","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2018.12.021","article-title":"Mechanism for rapid hardening of cement pastes under coupled CO2-water curing regime","volume":"97","author":"Zhan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.10.005","article-title":"A maturity approach to estimate compressive strength developmentof CO2-cured concrete blocks","volume":"85","author":"Xuan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.132968","article-title":"An overview on the influence of various parameters on the fabrication and engineering properties of CO2-cured cement-based composites","volume":"366","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2016.05.002","article-title":"Effect of curing parameters on CO2 curing of concrete blocks containing recycled aggregates","volume":"71","author":"Zhan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2019.05.034","article-title":"Effect of carbonation curing regime on strength and microstructure of Portland cement paste","volume":"34","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.127943","article-title":"Flue gas carbonation curing of cement paste and concrete at ambient pressure","volume":"313","author":"Xian","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"24","article-title":"Factors affecting kinetics of CO2 curing of concrete","volume":"1","author":"Shi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Cem.-Based Mater."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.088","article-title":"Accelerated carbonation of hardened cement pastes: Influenceof porosity","volume":"225","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.020","article-title":"Effect of pre-conditioning on CO2curing of lightweight concrete blocks mixtures","volume":"26","author":"Shi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.04.015","article-title":"Carbon sequestration through accelerated carbonation of BOF slag: Influence of particle size characteristics","volume":"298","author":"Polettini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"2116","article-title":"Effect of accelerated carbonation curing on near surface properties of concrete","volume":"1964\u20138189","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2020.02.012","article-title":"Instant CO2 curing for dry-mix pressed cement pastes: Consideration of CO2 concentrations coupled with further water curing","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128364","article-title":"Superior CO2 uptake and enhanced compressive strength for carbonation curing of cement-based materials via flue gas","volume":"346","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106827","article-title":"Effect of temperature on CO2 curing, compressive strength and microstructure of cement paste","volume":"157","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017176","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002031","article-title":"Effect of Carbonation Mixing on CO2 Uptake and Strength Gain in Concrete","volume":"29","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2019.06.005","article-title":"Changes in mineral composition, growth of calcite crystal, and promotion ofphysico-chemical properties induced by carbonation of \u03b2-C2S","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.07.006","article-title":"Understanding the adhesion mechanisms between C-S-H and fillers","volume":"100","author":"Ouyang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3764","DOI":"10.1111\/jace.13177","article-title":"Understanding the Filler Effect on the Nucleation and Growth of C-S-H","volume":"97","author":"Berodier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2016.05.026","article-title":"Effect of further water curing on compressive strength and microstructure of CO2-cured concrete","volume":"72","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2018.07.012","article-title":"Surface scaling of CO2-cured concrete exposed to freeze-thaw cycles","volume":"27","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2013.05.001","article-title":"Improved durability of vegetable fiber reinforced cement compositesubject to accelerated carbonation at early age","volume":"42","author":"Almeida","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.041","article-title":"Effect of early carbonation curing on chloride penetrationand weathering carbonation in concrete","volume":"123","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103809","article-title":"Surface characterization of carbonated recycled concrete fines and its effect on the rheology, hydration and strength development of cement paste","volume":"114","author":"Ouyang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, S. (2018). Carbon Dioxide Sequestration in Cementitious Construction Materials, Elsevier Ltd.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-102444-7.00005-8"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwasny, J., Basheer, P.M., and Russell, M. (2014, January 24\u201326). CO2 Sequestration in Cement-Based Materials During Mixing Process Using Carbonated Water and Gaseous CO2. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on the Durability of Concrete Structures, West Lafayette, IN, USA.","DOI":"10.5703\/1288284315385"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Silva, A., Nogueira, R., Bogas, J.A., and Rodrigues, M. (May, January 29). Influence of carbon dioxide as a mixture component on the cement hydration. Proceedings of the 4th International RILEM Conference: Microstructure Related Durability of Cementitious Composites, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"92","article-title":"Carbon dioxide solubility in water","volume":"1","author":"Dodds","year":"1956","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Nogueira, R., Silva, A., Bogas, J.A., and Gomes, M.G. (2024). Early-age hydration of Portland cement under forced carbonation, To be submited soon."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-004-0501-2","article-title":"Wood-cement composites: A review","volume":"62","author":"Jorge","year":"2004","journal-title":"Holz Roh Werkst."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"CarbonCure (2021, June 07). CarbonCure Technologies. Available online: https:\/\/www.carboncure.com\/technology\/."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"160","article-title":"Activation of cement hydration with carbon dioxide","volume":"7","author":"Monkman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Cem.-Based Mater."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121364","article-title":"Study on high-efficiency CO2 absorption by fresh cement paste","volume":"270","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2020.106179","article-title":"The impacts of in-situ carbonate seeding on the early hydration of tricalcium silicate","volume":"136","author":"Monkman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2016.10.007","article-title":"Properties and durability of concrete produced usign CO2 as an accelerating admixture","volume":"74","author":"Monkman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Monkman, S. (November, January 30). Sustainable Ready Mixed Concrete Production Using Waste CO2: A Case Study. Proceedings of the Conference: Recent Advances in Concrete Technology and Sustainability Issues: Fourteenth International Conference, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.101357","article-title":"Rapid hydration mechanism of carbonic acid and cement","volume":"31","author":"Lippiatt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.116825","article-title":"Combining hydration and carbonation of cement using super-saturated aqueous CO2 solution","volume":"229","author":"Lippiatt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2022.101886","article-title":"Use of carbonated water to improve the mechanical properties and reduce the carbon footprint of cement-based materials with recycled aggregates","volume":"57","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/physci240016a0","article-title":"Acceleration of hydration of calcium silicates by carbon dioxide treatment","volume":"240","author":"Berger","year":"1972","journal-title":"Nat. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2011.03.005","article-title":"Impact of admixtures on the hydration kinetics of Portland cement","volume":"41","author":"Cheung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.103972","article-title":"Stiffening control of cement-based materials using accelerators in inline mixing processes: Possibilities and challenges","volume":"119","author":"Tao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4418","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.cgd.0c00241","article-title":"Nonclassical Crystallization of Calcium Hydroxide via Amorphous Precursors and the Role of Additives","volume":"20","author":"Elert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cryst. Growth Des."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Nonat, A., Lecoq, X., and Gauffinet, S. (1997, January 2\u20136). Calcium hydroxide concentration in solution: Parameter determining the kinetics of the early hydration of tricalcium silicate and the characteristics of the products. Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Gothenburg, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8544","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-26943-y","article-title":"Multiscale understanding of tricalcium silicate hydration reactions","volume":"8","author":"Cuesta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1039\/C4CE01562B","article-title":"Formation of amorphous calcium carbonate and its transformation into mesostructured calcite","volume":"17","author":"Kudlacz","year":"2015","journal-title":"CrystEngComm"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-2916.2009.03599.x","article-title":"A Coupled Nanoindentation\/SEM-EDS Study on Low Water\/Cement RatioPortland Cement Paste: Evidence for C\u2013S\u2013H\/Ca(OH)2 Nanocomposites","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"(2021, June 08). Cembureau, Cement, Concrete & the Circular Economy. Cembureau, European Cement Association, Brussels, Belgium. Available online: https:\/\/circulareconomy.europa.eu\/platform\/sites\/default\/files\/cement_concrete_the_circular_economy.pdf."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"188400","article-title":"A diagnosis of construction and demolition waste generation and recovery practice in the European Union","volume":"241","author":"Osmani","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.020","article-title":"Recycled concrete aggregates","volume":"27","author":"Oikonomou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2018.04.016","article-title":"Construction and demolition waste best management practice in Europe","volume":"136","author":"Styles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2019.103446","article-title":"Utilization of CO2 curing to enhance the properties of recycled aggregate and prepared concrete: A review","volume":"105","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103807","article-title":"The utilization of eco-friendly recycled powder from concrete and brick waste in new concrete: A critical review","volume":"114","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.159","article-title":"Effects of carbonated hardened cement paste powder on hydration and microstructure of Portland cement","volume":"186","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122358","article-title":"Valorization of waste powders from cement-concrete life cycle: A pathway to circular future","volume":"268","author":"Kaliyavaradhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.124632","article-title":"Nano particles prepared from hardened cement paste by wet grinding and its utilization as an accelerator in Portland cement","volume":"283","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/SSP.249.136","article-title":"Study Replacement of Cement with Recycled Cement Powder and the and the Environmental Assessment","volume":"249","author":"Tereza","year":"2016","journal-title":"Solid State Phenom."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.101863","article-title":"Use of grinded hardened cement pastes as mineral addition for mortars","volume":"34","author":"Bouarroudj","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.080","article-title":"Cement substitution by a recycled cement paste fine: Role of the residual anhydrous clinker","volume":"132","author":"Bordy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.11.042","article-title":"Utilization of waste concrete powder as a substitution material for cement","volume":"30","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01010","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201927801010","article-title":"Study on the Application of Recycled Fine Powder in Ready-Mixed Concrete","volume":"278","author":"Cong","year":"2019","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehdizadeh, H., Ling, T.-C., Cheng, X., and Mo, K.H. (2020). Effect of particle size and CO2 treatment of waste cement powder on properties of cement paste. Can. J. Civ. Eng.","DOI":"10.1139\/cjce-2019-0574"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1002\/ep.10080","article-title":"Development of a process for producing high-purity calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from waste cement using pressurized CO2","volume":"24","author":"Katsuyama","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Prog."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.017","article-title":"Microstructure changes of waste hydrated cement paste induced by accelerated carbonation","volume":"76","author":"Fang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123264","article-title":"Effect of synthesis parameters on the development of unconfined compressive strength of recycled waste concrete powder-based geopolymers","volume":"292","author":"Huo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.044","article-title":"Production of geopolymeric binder from blended waste concrete powder and fly ash","volume":"35","author":"Ahmari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2020.106226","article-title":"Microstructure of thermoactivated recycled cement pastes","volume":"138","author":"Bogas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119502","article-title":"Mortars with thermo activated recycled cement: Fresh and mechanicalcharacterisation","volume":"256","author":"Real","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.01.325","article-title":"Mechanical characterization of thermal activated low-carbon recycledcement mortars","volume":"218","author":"Bogas","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04021041","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003652","article-title":"CO2 treatment of hydrated cement powder: Characterization and application consideration","volume":"33","author":"Mehdizadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.102677","article-title":"Properties and CO2-curing enhancement of cement-based materials containing various sources of waste hardened cement paste powder","volume":"44","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, A., Nogueira, R., Bogas, A., Abrantes, J., Wawrzynczak, D., Sciubidlo, A., and Majchrzak-Kuceba, I. (2022). Valorisation of recycled cement paste: Feasibility of a short duration carbonation process. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15176001"},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"Silva, A., Nogueira, R., and Bogas, A. (2022, January 13\u201314). Recycled cement paste carbonation: The industrial advance of the short carbonation process. Proceedings of the 13th Central European Congress on Concrete Engineering, CCC 2022, Zakopane, Polony."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, A., Nogueira, R., Bogas, A., Wawrzynczak, D., Sciubidlo, A., and Majchrzak-Kuceba, I. (2022). Parametric study towards optimization of a short duration carbonation process of recycled cement paste. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15196513"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.127375","article-title":"Novel separation process for obtaining recycled cement and high-quality recycled sand from waste hardened concrete","volume":"309","author":"Bogas","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"5614","article-title":"Carbon Capture and Utilization by mineralization of cement pastes derived from recycled concrete","volume":"10","author":"Skocek","year":"2020","journal-title":"NatureResearch"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7880","DOI":"10.1021\/ie0496176","article-title":"Development of a New CO2 Sequestration Process Utilizing the Carbonation of Waste Cement","volume":"43","author":"Iizuka","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117811","article-title":"Simulating cement hydration using HYDCEM","volume":"239","author":"Holmes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-006-7840-7","article-title":"Gradual transformation of Ca(OH)2 into CaCO3 on cement hydration: XRD study","volume":"87","author":"Stepkowska","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"1413","article-title":"Formation of Silica gel During Carbonation of Cementitious Systems Containing Slag Cements","volume":"114","author":"Bier","year":"1989","journal-title":"ACI Symp. Pap."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2013.11.015","article-title":"Investigation of the carbonation mechanism of CH and C-S-H in terms of kinetics, microstructure changes and moisture properties","volume":"56","author":"Morandeau","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-008-9399-1","article-title":"Chemical changes and phase analysis of OPC pastes carbonated at different CO2 concentrations","volume":"42","author":"Castellote","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2008.02.003","article-title":"Surface carbonation of synthetic C-S-H samples: A comparison between fresh and aged C-S-H using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy","volume":"38","author":"Black","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128399","article-title":"Effects of temperature, humidity and CO2 concentration on carbonation of cement-based materials: A review","volume":"346","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104315","article-title":"A review on the modelling of carbonation of hardened and fresh cement-based materials","volume":"125","author":"You","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1002\/cjce.22619","article-title":"Production of carbon negative precipitated calcium carbonate from waste concrete","volume":"94","author":"Zeman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21148-w","article-title":"Carbon dioxide utilization in concrete curing or mixing might not produce a net climate benefit","volume":"12","author":"Ravikumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/16\/1\/361\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:44:58Z","timestamp":1760132698000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/16\/1\/361"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]},"references-count":144,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["su16010361"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su16010361","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,30]]}}}