{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T12:49:33Z","timestamp":1765889373178,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,25]],"date-time":"2024-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UNIVERSIDAD POLIT\u00c9CNICA DE MADRID","award":["I+D+I 2021","50110000187"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I+D+I 2021","50110000187"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["I+D+I 2021","50110000187"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I+D+I 2021","50110000187"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The safe and efficient operation of highways minimizes the environmental impact, reduces accidents, and promotes the reliability of the transportation infrastructure, all in support of sustainable transportation. The horizontal alignment of highways holds particular importance as it directly impacts driver behavior, vehicle stability, and overall road safety. In many cases, highway inventory data held by infrastructure operators may contain inaccurate or outdated information. The accuracy of the variables used in crash prediction models eliminates possible bias in the variable estimators. This research proposes a methodology to obtain accurate horizontal geometric features from digital imagery based on the analysis of the planimetry, feature geolocation and centerline azimuth sequence. The reliability of the method is verified by means of numerical and statistical procedures. This methodology is applied to 150 km of motorway segments in Portugal. Although it is found that the geometric characteristics of most of the inventory segments closely matched the extracted alignments, very significant differences are found in some sections. The results of the proposed procedure are illustrated with several examples. Finally, the propagation of error in the determination of the geometric design independent variables in the fitting of the statistical models is discussed based on the results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su16177296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,26]],"date-time":"2024-08-26T03:59:09Z","timestamp":1724644749000},"page":"7296","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Development of Motorway Horizontal Alignment Databases for Accurate Accident Prediction Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9686-8872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9sar","family":"De Santos-Berbel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Estructuras y F\u00edsica de Edificaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7469-3186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CITTA\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o do Territ\u00f3rio Transportes e Ambiente, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3550-4586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Couto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CITTA\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o do Territ\u00f3rio Transportes e Ambiente, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7614-7605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Lobo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CITTA\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o do Territ\u00f3rio Transportes e Ambiente, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jelti, F., Allouhi, A., Anissa, K., and Aoul, T. (2023). Transition Paths towards a Sustainable Transportation System: A Literature Review. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su152115457"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2020.105923","article-title":"Driving Simulators to Evaluate Road Geometric Design Effects on Driver Behaviour: A Systematic Review","volume":"150","author":"Bobermin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3141\/2404-01","article-title":"Estimating Percentile Speeds from Maximum Operating Speed Frontier","volume":"2404","author":"Lobo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1925","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/3540785","article-title":"Modelling the Operating Speed in Segments of Two-Lane Highways from Probe Vehicle Data: A Stochastic Frontier Approach","volume":"2018","author":"Lobo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1128","article-title":"A Novel Ensemble Learning Method for Crash Prediction Using Road Geometric Alignments and Traffic Data","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transp. Saf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farooq, M.U., and Khattak, A.J. (2023). Investigating Highway\u2013Rail Grade Crossing Inventory Data Quality\u2019s Role in Crash Model Estimation and Crash Prediction. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app132011537"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (2010). Highway Safety Manual, AASHTO. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matcom.2013.12.003","article-title":"Determination of Alignments in Existing Roads by Using Spline Techniques","volume":"102","author":"Garach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Math. Comput. Simul."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Tan, Z.-H. (2010, January 16\u201318). New Algorithm for Fitting 3D Highway Alignment from Geometric Data. Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP 2010), Yantai, China."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Ministerio de Fomento (2016). Norma. 3.1 IC\u2014Instrucci\u00f3n de Carreteras: Trazado, Bolet\u00edn Oficial del Estado (BOE). Available online: http:\/\/www.carreteros.org\/normativa\/trazado\/31ic_2016\/pdfs\/3_1ic_2016.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Junta Aut\u00f3noma de Estradas (JAE) (1994). Norma de Tra\u00e7ado, Junta Aut\u00f3noma de Estradas."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Kraemer, C., Rocci, S., and S\u00e1nchez Blanco, V. (1994). Trazado de Carreteras, Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2020.12.018","article-title":"Driver Glare Exposure with Different Vehicle Frontlighting Systems","volume":"76","author":"Castro","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Safety Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matcom.2019.08.012","article-title":"Effect of Vehicle Swiveling Headlamps and Highway Geometric Design on Nighttime Sight Distance","volume":"170","author":"Castro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Math. Comput. Simul."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12087","article-title":"Semiautomatic Extraction of Road Horizontal Alignment from a Mobile LiDAR System","volume":"30","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"762","article-title":"Precise Estimation of Road Horizontal and Vertical Geometric Features Using Mobile Mapping Techniques","volume":"15","author":"Karamanou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bol. Ci\u00eancias Geod\u00e9sicas"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2011.2163186","article-title":"A Novel Geodetic Engineering Method for Accurate and Automated Road\/Railway Centerline Geometry Extraction Based on the Bearing Diagram and Fractal Behavior","volume":"13","author":"Gikas","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12094","article-title":"Use of Heading Direction for Recreating the Horizontal Alignment of an Existing Road","volume":"30","author":"Tarko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2024, June 22). Bentley OpenRoads | Opensite\u2014Video: Create a Best Fit Alignment from Survey Data\u2014Communities. Available online: https:\/\/bentleysystems.service-now.com\/community?id=kb_article&sysparm_article=KB0021882."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2024, June 22). Autodesk Civil 3D Help|To Create an Alignment by Best Fit. Available online: https:\/\/help.autodesk.com\/view\/CIV3D\/2024\/ENU\/?guid=GUID-EF036075-36E4-4E17-A2EB-D33D7876071E."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Card-1 (2024, June 22). Modules for Road Routing\/Design. Available online: https:\/\/www.card-1.com\/en\/product\/overview-of-modules\/road."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8667.2008.00518.x","article-title":"Modeling Road Centerlines and Predicting Lengths in 3-D Using LIDAR Point Cloud and Planimetric Road Centerline Data","volume":"23","author":"Cai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lippold, C., Z\u00f6sch, J., and Zimmermann, M. (2020). R\u00e4umliche Linienf\u00fchrung von Autobahnen, Fachverlag NW."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Qadi, I.L., Sayed, T., Alnuaimi, N., and Masad, E. (2008). Di Automated In-Vehicle Data Collection and Treatment for Existing Roadway Alignment. Efficient Transportation and Pavement Systems: Characterization, Mechanisms, Simulation, and Modeling, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203881200"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3141\/2171-02","article-title":"Modeling Operating Speed and Deceleration on Two-Lane Rural Roads with Global Positioning System Data","volume":"2171","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2017.03.020","article-title":"Mobile Mapping Systems and Spatial Data Collection Strategies Assessment in the Identification of Horizontal Alignment of Highways","volume":"79","author":"Marinelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, L., Shi, W., Zhu, J., Shao, P., Sun, S., Li, Y., Wang, F., and Gao, F. (2021). Novel Framework for 3D Road Extraction Based on Airborne LiDAR and High-Resolution Remote Sensing Imagery. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13234766"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8667.2009.00622.x","article-title":"Horizontal Roadway Curvature Computation Algorithm Using Vision Technology","volume":"25","author":"Tsai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04018010","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000262","article-title":"Circular Curve-Fitting Method for Field Surveying Data with Correlated Noise","volume":"144","author":"Song","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"De Santos-Berbel, C. (2017). A Methodology for Sight Distance Analysis on Highways, Alignment Coordination, and Their Relation to Traffic Safety, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2061","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2015.1037304","article-title":"Spatial Analysis of Geometric Design Consistency and Road Sight Distance","volume":"29","author":"Castro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abuhasel, K.A. (2023). A GIS Approach for Analysis of Traffic Accident Hotspots in Abha and Bisha Cities, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su151914112"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9453(2007)133:1(29)","article-title":"Use of Satellite Imagery for Establishing Road Horizontal Alignments","volume":"133","author":"Easa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9453(2007)133:1(36)","article-title":"Approximate Extraction of Spiralled Horizontal Curves from Satellite Imagery","volume":"133","author":"Dong","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8667.2006.00444.x","article-title":"GPS-GIS-Based Procedure for Tracking Vehicle Path on Horizontal Alignments","volume":"21","author":"Imran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.3141\/2472-20","article-title":"Automated Extraction of Horizontal Curve Information for Low-Volume Roads","volume":"2472","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981211032220","article-title":"Automatic Horizontal Curve Identification for Large Areas from Geographic Information System Roadway Centerlines","volume":"2675","author":"Bejleri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iatssr.2021.05.001","article-title":"Influence of Segment Length on the Fitness of Multivariate Crash Prediction Models Applied to a Brazilian Multilane Highway","volume":"45","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"IATSS Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2023.11.632","article-title":"Predicting Safety Performance on Motorways during the Pandemic Based on Geometric Design: A Case Study in Portugal","volume":"72","author":"Neves","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Yu, P., Shah, R., Knezevich, R., and Tsai, Y.C. (2024). Crash Prediction on Horizontal Curves: Review and Model Performance Comparison. Transp. Res. Rec.","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981241242075"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2017.10.001","article-title":"Crashes and Near-Crashes on Horizontal Curves along Rural Two-Lane Highways: Analysis of Naturalistic Driving Data","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Safety Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6685010","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/6685010","article-title":"Safety Evaluation for Highway Geometric Design Based on Spatial Path Properties","volume":"2023","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1","article-title":"Reliability-Based Analysis of Sight Distance Modelling for Traffic Safety","volume":"2017","author":"Essa","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Fitzpatrick, K., Elefteriadou, L., Harwood, D.W., Collins, J.M., McFadden, J., Anderson, I.B., Krammes, R.A., Irizarry, N., Parma, K.D., and Bauer, K.M. (2000). Speed Prediction for Two-Lane Rural Highways, Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS)."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1139\/l03-090","article-title":"Effect of Geometric Design Consistency on Road Safety","volume":"31","author":"Ng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cefalo, R., Sluga, T., Ossich, G., and Roberti, R. (2024). Assessment of Design Consistency for Two-Lane Rural Highways with Low Tortuosity Alignment. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16030987"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2018.05.014","article-title":"Calibration of the Inertial Consistency Index to Assess Road Safety on Horizontal Curves of Two-Lane Rural Roads","volume":"118","year":"2018","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2014.10.019","article-title":"Safety Performance Functions Incorporating Design Consistency Variables","volume":"74","author":"Montella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Bucher, I. (2024, July 07). Circle Fit. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/matlabcentral\/fileexchange\/5557-circle-fit."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2010.02.001","article-title":"The Statistical Analysis of Crash-Frequency Data: A Review and Assessment of Methodological Alternatives","volume":"44","author":"Lord","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1139\/l06-056","article-title":"Traffic Accident Modeling: Some Statistical Issues","volume":"33","author":"Sawalha","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.6028\/jres.070C.025","article-title":"Notes on the Use of Propagation of Error Formulas","volume":"70C","author":"Ku","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. Sect. C Eng. Instrum."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/16\/17\/7296\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:42:23Z","timestamp":1760110943000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/16\/17\/7296"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,25]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["su16177296"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su16177296","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2071-1050"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,25]]}}}