{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T17:12:00Z","timestamp":1760116320292,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/05488\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/05488\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Microbial deterioration poses a significant threat to built heritage, particularly mural paintings, where traditional synthetic biocides can have adverse environmental and material impacts. This study evaluates the effectiveness of essential oils derived from four aromatic plants\u2014thyme (Thymus mastichina L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.), and green lavender (Lavandula viridis L\u2019H\u00e9r.)\u2014as natural biocides against microorganisms isolated from mural paintings in the House of Moscadim, an 18th-century manor house in Portugal. The antimicrobial activity of the essential oils was assessed using both direct contact and micro-atmosphere methods. Four microorganisms were isolated, including two bacteria, Bacillus wiedmannii and Bacillus mobilis, and two fungi, Penicillium brevicompactum and Cladosporium cladosporioides. Fennel essential oil exhibited the strongest antifungal activity against both fungal species, surpassing the efficacy of the commercial biocide Biotin T\u00ae in some cases. Pennyroyal and lavender essential oils also showed significant inhibitory effects. The micro-atmosphere method demonstrated the potential for noninvasive application of essential oils while preserving the integrity of delicate mural surfaces. These findings suggest that essential oils, particularly fennel oil, constitute a promising natural alternative to synthetic biocides for the sustainable conservation of cultural heritage. Further research is recommended to explore their long-term effects and to optimize application techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su162411223","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,23]],"date-time":"2024-12-23T02:39:56Z","timestamp":1734921596000},"page":"11223","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biocides Based on Essential Oils for Sustainable Conservation and Restoration of Mural Paintings in Built Cultural Heritage"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8374-3384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dina","family":"Mateus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Techn&Art\u2014Centre for Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement, Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Tomar, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Tomar, Estrada da Serra, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Techn&Art\u2014Centre for Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement, Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Tomar, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Tomar, Estrada da Serra, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5385-210X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasco","family":"de Jesus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Tomar, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Tomar, Estrada da Serra, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Leonor","family":"Malaquias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Tomar, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Tomar, Estrada da Serra, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schr\u00f6er, L., Boon, N., De Kock, T., and Cnudde, V. (2021). The Capabilities of Bacteria and Archaea to Alter Natural Building Stones\u2014A Review. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad., 165.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibiod.2021.105329"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2011.02584.x","article-title":"The Revenge of Time: Fungal Deterioration of Cultural Heritage with Particular Reference to Books, Paper and Parchment","volume":"14","author":"Sterflinger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-003-1052-5","article-title":"Cyanobacteria and Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: A Review","volume":"49","author":"Crispim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Russo, R., and Palla, F. (2023). Plant Essential Oils as Biocides in Sustainable Strategies for the Conservation of Cultural Heritage. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15118522"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.4236\/gm.2022.123004","article-title":"Bacterial Deterioration in the Limestone Minaret of Prince Muhammad and Suggested Treatment Methods, Akhmim, Egypt","volume":"12","author":"Ahmed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geomaterials"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.14568\/cp2012005","article-title":"Microbiological Diversity in the Unfinished Sacristy Building of the Convent of Christ, Tomar, and Evaluation of Its Biocide-Based Control","volume":"17","author":"Mateus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Conserv. Patrim\u00f3nio"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.13189\/eer.2016.040504","article-title":"Fungi and Bacteria in Indoor Cultural Heritage Environments: Microbial-Related Risks for Artworks and Human Health","volume":"4","author":"Chisesi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"de Azevedo, J.L., and de Melo, I.S. (2008). De Biodeteriora\u00e7\u00e3o de Monumentos Hist\u00f3ricos. Microbiologia Ambiental, Embrapa Meio Ambiente."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V\u0103car, C.L., Mircea, C., P\u00e2rvu, M., and Podar, D. (2022). Diversity and Metabolic Activity of Fungi Causing Biodeterioration of Canvas Paintings. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8060589"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.20985\/1980-5160.2020.v15n1.1621","article-title":"Degrada\u00e7\u00e3o de Gnaisse e Granito Em Fachadas de Edif\u00edcios Hist\u00f3ricos No Centro Do Rio de Janeiro","volume":"15","author":"Gaylarde","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sistemas Gest\u00e3o"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-020-00602-5","article-title":"Microbial Deterioration and Sustainable Conservation of Stone Monuments and Buildings","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9637","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-013-5283-1","article-title":"Microbial Deterioration of Cultural Heritage and Works of Art\u2014Tilting at Windmills?","volume":"97","author":"Sterflinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"de Melo, I.S., and de Azevedo, J.L. (2008). Biodeteriora\u00e7\u00e3o No Ambiente Constru\u00eddo. Microbiologia Ambiental, Embrapa Meio Ambiente."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allsopp, D., Seal, K.J., and Gaylarde, C.C. (2004). Introduction to Biodeterioration, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511617065"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mateus, D.M.R., Costa, F.M.C., and Tri\u00e3es, R.P. (2023). Essential Oils of Plants as Biocides Against Microorganisms Isolated from Portuguese Convent of Christ in Tomar, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-27431-2_10"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-008-9441-4","article-title":"Detection and Elimination of Cyanobacteria from Frescoes: The Case of the St. Brizio Chapel (Orvieto Cathedral, Italy)","volume":"57","author":"Cappitelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palla, F., Bruno, M., Mercurio, F., Tantillo, A., and Rotolo, V. (2020). Essential Oils as Natural Biocides in Conservation of Cultural Heritage. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25030730"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Jain, S.K., Khan, A.A., and Rai, M.K. (2010). Biodeterioration of Archaeological Monuments and Approach for Restoration. Geomicrobiology, CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2022.05.012","article-title":"Biofilms on Stone Monuments: Biodeterioration or Bioprotection?","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cappitelli, F., Catt\u00f2, C., and Villa, F. (2020). The Control of Cultural Heritage Microbial Deterioration. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8101542"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinna, D. (2022). Can We Do without Biocides to Cope with Biofilms and Lichens on Stone Heritage?. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad., 172.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibiod.2022.105437"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2019.01.005","article-title":"Natural Biocides for the Conservation of Stone Cultural Heritage: A Review","volume":"38","author":"Fidanza","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40669","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-28212-6","article-title":"Essential Oils and Extracts of Plants as Biocides against Microorganisms Isolated from the Ruins of the Roman City of Con\u00edmbriga (Portugal)","volume":"31","author":"Mateus","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reale, R., Medeghini, L., and Botticelli, M. (2024). Stealing from Phytotherapy\u2014Heritage Conservation with Essential Oils: A Review, from Remedy to Sustainable Restoration Product. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16125110"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"89","article-title":"Natural Substances as Biocides in the Fungi Treatment on Artistic Products to Protect the Environment and Health of Restoration Workers","volume":"52","author":"Casorri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ital. J. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angane, M., Swift, S., Huang, K., Butts, C.A., and Quek, S.Y. (2022). Essential Oils and Their Major Components: An Updated Review on Antimicrobial Activities, Mechanism of Action and Their Potential Application in the Food Industry. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11030464"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001","article-title":"Discovery and Resupply of Pharmacologically Active Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Review","volume":"33","author":"Atanasov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2021.113255","article-title":"Essential Oils and Quality Composts Sourced by Recycling Vegetable Residues from the Aromatic Plant Supply Chain","volume":"162","author":"Zaccardelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.12693\/APhysPolA.134.383","article-title":"Microbial Ability to Colonize Mural Painting and Its Substrate","volume":"134","author":"Gomoiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Pol. A"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Mitchell, R., Clifford, J., and Vasanthakumar, A. (2022). Microbial Colonization and Protective Management of Wall Paintings. Cultural Heritage Microbiology-Recent Developments, Archetype Publications."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trov\u00e3o, J., and Portugal, A. (2021). Current Knowledge on the Fungal Degradation Abilities Profiled through Biodeteriorative Plate Essays. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11094196"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2023.03.009","article-title":"Green Biocides for the Conservation of Hypogeal Mural Paintings Raised from Western and Eastern Traditions: Evaluation of Interference on Pigments and Substrata and Multifactor Parameters Affecting Their Activity","volume":"61","author":"Isola","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2019.106459","article-title":"Basil Essential Oil as an Alternative to Commercial Biocides against Fungi Associated with Black Stains in Mural Painting","volume":"167","author":"Marco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, H.-J., and Chung, Y.-J. (2023). Antifungal, Antibacterial, and Interference Effects of Plant-Extracted Essential Oils Used for Mural Conservation at Buyeo Royal Tomb No. 1. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13063645"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2014.05.030","article-title":"A Review of Indoor Microbial Growth across Building Materials and Sampling and Analysis Methods","volume":"80","author":"Verdier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"80","article-title":"Chemical Characterization of Essential Oils With a Biocide Base for Conservation and Restoration","volume":"7","author":"Baptista","year":"2022","journal-title":"KnE Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpha.2015.11.005","article-title":"Methods for in Vitro Evaluating Antimicrobial Activity: A Review","volume":"6","author":"Balouiri","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Anal."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2014.03.016","article-title":"Antifungal Activity of Selected Essential Oils and Biocide Benzalkonium Chloride against the Fungi Isolated from Cultural Heritage Objects","volume":"93","author":"Stupar","year":"2014","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s40494-024-01166-9","article-title":"Lavandula Angustifolia Mill. for a Suitable Non-Invasive Treatment against Fungal Colonization on Organic-Media Cultural Heritage","volume":"12","author":"Paolino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Herit. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.38150\/sajeb.8(3).p76-82","article-title":"Isolation and Identification of Low Density Polythene-Degrading Bacteria from Soil of North West of Algeria","volume":"8","author":"Zerhouni","year":"2019","journal-title":"South Asian J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1012","article-title":"Amylolytic and Proteolytic Bacteria in Deteriorated Paper-Based Historical Manuscripts","volume":"83","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sci. Ind. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, C., Fang, Z., Li, X., and Liu, X. (2023). Identification of Bacterial Communities Involved in Bioweathering Crusts on Limestone Sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes. Coatings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings13091506"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2022.09.009","article-title":"Carbonatogenic Bacteria on the \u2018Motya Charioteer\u2019 Sculpture","volume":"57","author":"Nigro","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867033457719","article-title":"Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties of Essential Oils","volume":"10","author":"Kalemba","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/0926-6690(93)90010-7","article-title":"Antibacterial and Antioxidant Properties of Mediterranean Aromatic Plants","volume":"2","author":"Piccaglia","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mota, A.S., Martins, M.R., Arantes, S., Lopes, V.R., Bettencourt, E., Pombal, S., Gomes, A.C., and Silva, L.A. (2015). Antimicrobial Activity and Chemical Composition of the Essential Oils of Portuguese Foeniculum Vulgare Fruits. Nat. Prod. Commun., 10.","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X1501000437"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, M., Lopes, A.C., Vaz, F., Filipe, M., Alves, G., Ribeiro, M.P., Coutinho, P., and Araujo, A.R.T.S. (2020). Thymus Mastichina: Composition and Biological Properties with a Focus on Antimicrobial Activity. Pharmaceuticals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph13120479"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1080\/0972060X.2012.10662609","article-title":"Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil of Mentha pulegium L. from Bodrum, Turkey","volume":"15","author":"Yasa","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"49","article-title":"Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Activities of the Essential Oil of Mentha pulegium L, South East of Algeria","volume":"39","author":"Ouakouak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Lett. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1002\/ffj.1117","article-title":"Comparison of Essential Oil Composition of Iranian Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Obtained by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction and Hydrodistillation Methods","volume":"17","author":"Yamini","year":"2002","journal-title":"Flavour Fragr. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kakakhel, M.A., Wu, F., Gu, J.-D., Feng, H., Shah, K., and Wang, W. (2019). Controlling Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage Objects with Biocides: A Review. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad., 143.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibiod.2019.104721"}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/16\/24\/11223\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:57:16Z","timestamp":1760115436000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/16\/24\/11223"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["su162411223"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su162411223","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2071-1050"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]}}}