{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:07:13Z","timestamp":1760058433793,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743465600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aims to assess the environmental impact of using wood-based biomass as a high-efficiency fuel alternative to fossil fuels for heat production. To achieve this, the life cycle of biomass transformation, utilization, and disposal was analyzed using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology with SimaPro 9.5.0.2 PhD software. The system boundaries included extraction, processing, transportation, combustion, and waste management, following a cradle-to-gate approach. A comparative analysis was conducted between natural gas, the most widely used conventional heating fuel, and two biomass-based fuels: wood pellets and wood chips. The results indicate that biomass utilization reduces greenhouse gas emissions (\u221219%) and fossil resource depletion (\u221216%) while providing environmental benefits across all assessed impact categories analyzed, except for land use (+96%). Biomass is also to be preferred for forest waste management, ease of supply, and energy independence. However, critical life cycle phases, such as raw material processing and transportation, were found to contribute significantly to human health and ecosystem well-being. To mitigate these effects, optimizing combustion efficiency, improving supply chain logistics, and promoting sustainable forestry practices are recommended. These findings highlight the potential of biomass as a viable renewable energy source and provide insights into strategies for minimizing its environmental footprint.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su17073109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T07:00:45Z","timestamp":1743490845000},"page":"3109","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sustainable Heat Production for Fossil Fuel Replacement\u2014Life Cycle Assessment for Plant Biomass Renewable Energy Sources"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2252-381X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabel","family":"Br\u00e1s","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environment, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic University of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"},{"name":"CISeD\u2014Research Centre in Digital Services, Polytechnic University of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3603-5355","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimiliano","family":"Fabbricino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, 80125 Naples, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7596-8065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERNAS-IPV Research Centre and ESTGV, Polytechnic University of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9478-623X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabete","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environment, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic University of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"},{"name":"CISeD\u2014Research Centre in Digital Services, Polytechnic University of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal"},{"name":"LEPABE\u2014Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, the University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5404-8052","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Mignano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, 80125 Naples, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadh2458","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adh2458","article-title":"Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries","volume":"9","author":"Richardson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1007\/s44274-024-00033-5","article-title":"Addressing global environmental pollution using environmental control techniques: A focus on environmental policy and preventive environmental management","volume":"2","author":"Awewomom","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saint-Marc, R., Paredes-S\u00e1nchez, J.P., and Xiberta-Bernat, J. (2018). Power Generation from Bioenergy Crops by Technical and Economic Feasibility Assessment. Proceedings, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2231476"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envdev.2021.100640","article-title":"Strategic mineral resources: Availability and future estimations for the renewable energy sector","volume":"41","author":"Calvo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.111011","article-title":"Constraints imposed by key-material resources on renewable energy development","volume":"144","author":"Klimenko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sperandio, G., Suardi, A., Acampora, A., and Civitarese, V. (2024). Eco-Efficiency of Pellet Production from Dedicated Poplar Plantations. Energies, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/en17133137"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2012.11.005","article-title":"Mitigation of global warming through renewable biomass","volume":"48","author":"Dhillon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1007\/s40518-021-00196-2","article-title":"The State of the Art Overview of the Biomass Gasification Technology","volume":"8","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Sustain. Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chintagunta, A.D., Zuccaro, G., Kumar, M., Kumar, S.P.J., Garlapati, V.K., Postemsky, P.D., Kumar, N.S.S., Chandel, A.K., and Simal-Gandara, J. (2021). Biodiesel Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Oleaginous Microbes: Prospects for Integrated Biofuel Production. Front. Microbiol., 12, Available online: https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2021.658284.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.658284"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buffi, M., Prussi, M., and Scarlat, N. (2022). Energy and environmental assessment of hydrogen from biomass sources: Challenges and perspectives. Biomass Bioenergy, 165.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2022.106556"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rex, P., Ismail, K.R.M., Meenakshisundaram, N., Barmavatu, P., and Bharadwaj, A.V.S.L.S. (2023). Agricultural Biomass Waste to Biochar: A Review on Biochar Applications Using Machine Learning Approach and Circular Economy. ChemEngineering, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemengineering7030050"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1080\/15435075.2021.1930007","article-title":"Implementation of the supercritical CO2 technology for the extraction of candlenut oil as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production: Potential and limitations","volume":"19","author":"Fizal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Green Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Picchio, R., Latterini, F., Venanzi, R., Stefanoni, W., Suardi, A., Tocci, D., and Pari, L. (2020). Pellet Production from Woody and Non-Woody Feedstocks: A Review on Biomass Quality Evaluation. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13112937"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babu, S., Rathore, S.S., Singh, R., Kumar, S., Singh, V.K., Yadav, S., Yadav, V., Raj, R., Yadav, D., and Shekhawat, K. (2022). Exploring agricultural waste biomass for energy, food and feed production and pollution mitigation: A review. Bioresour. Technol., 360.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2022.127566"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.107275","article-title":"Linking forest management and biodiversity indicators to strengthen sustainable forest management in Europe","volume":"122","author":"Oettel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"European Commission, Joint Research Centre, and Institute for Environment and Sustainability (2010). International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment: Detailed Guidance, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"SimaPro\u2014Help Center (2024, January 25). What Are Infrastructure Processes, and How to Include or Exclude Them?. Available online: https:\/\/support.simapro.com\/s\/article\/What-are-infrastructure-processes-and-how-to-include-or-exclude-them."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"PR\u00e9 (2016, January 18). SimaPro Tutorial. 5.3. Available online: https:\/\/pre-sustainability.com\/files\/2014\/05\/SimaPro8IntroductionToLCA.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"European Pellet Council (EPC) (2015). ENplus Handbook V 3.0, European Pellet Council (EPC)."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Renzi, M., Marchetti, S., Donato, F.D., Pappagallo, M., Scortichini, M., Davoli, M., Frova, L., Michelozzi, P., and Stafoggia, M. (2021). Acute Effects of Particulate Matter on All-Cause Mortality in Urban, Rural, and Suburban Areas, Italy. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182412895"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5298","DOI":"10.1021\/ef4010169","article-title":"Characterization of Emissions from Grass Pellet Combustion","volume":"27","author":"Chandrasekaran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Kuokkanen, M., P\u00f6yki\u00f6, R., Kuokkanen, T., and Nurmesniemi, H. (2009, January 3). Wood ash-A potential forest fertilizer; Energy Research At the University of Oulu. In Proceeding of the EnePro Conference, Oulu, Finland."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2014). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (Standard No. ISO 14044:2006). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/38498.html."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (Standard No. ISO 14040:2006). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/37456.html."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2016, January 18). Database & Support Team at PR\u00e9 Sustainability SimaPro Database Manual, Methods Library. Available online: https:\/\/simapro.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/DatabaseManualMethods.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"AIEL\u2014Associazione Italiana Energie Agroforestali (2022, April 01). Markets end Prices. Available online: https:\/\/www.aielenergia.it\/public\/pubblicazioni\/218_M_P_2-2022.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.150106","article-title":"Soil degradation in the European Mediterranean region: Processes, status and consequences","volume":"805","author":"Ferreira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Br\u00e1s, I., Silva, E., Raimondo, R., Saetta, R., Mignano, V., Fabbricino, M., and Ferreira, J. (2024). Valorisation of Forest and Agriculture Residual Biomass\u2014The Application of Life Cycle Assessment to Analyse Composting, Mulching, and Energetic Valorisation Strategies. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16020630"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abidnejad, R., Baniasadi, H., Fazeli, M., Lipponen, S., Kontturi, E., Rojas, O.J., and Mattos, B.D. (2025). High-fiber content composites produced from mixed textile waste: Balancing cotton and polyester fibers for improved composite performance. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 292.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.139227"}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/17\/7\/3109\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:07:36Z","timestamp":1760029656000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/17\/7\/3109"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["su17073109"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su17073109","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2071-1050"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]}}}