{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:37:56Z","timestamp":1760060276105,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/04625\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04625\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Capsule-based self-healing technologies offer a promising solution to extend pavement service life without requiring external activation. The effect of the capsule content on the mechanical behaviour of self-healing asphalt mixtures still needs to be understood. This study presents a numerical evaluation of the isolated effect of incorporating capsules containing encapsulated rejuvenators, at different volume contents, on the stiffness and strength of asphalt mixtures through a three-dimensional discrete-based programme (VirtualPM3DLab), which has been shown to predict well the experimental behaviour of asphalt mixtures. Uniaxial tension\u2013compression cyclic and monotonic tensile tests on notched specimens are carried out for three capsule contents commonly adopted in experimental investigations (0.30, 0.75, and 1.25 wt.%). The results show that the effect on the stiffness modulus progressively increases as the capsule content grows in the asphalt mixture, with a reduction ranging from 4.3% to 12.3%. At the same time, the phase angle is marginally affected. The capsule continuum equivalent Young\u2019s modulus has minimum influence on the overall rheological response, suggesting that the most critical parameter affecting asphalt mixture stiffness is the capsule content. Finally, while the peak tensile strength shows a maximum reduction of 12.4% at the highest capsule content, the stress\u2013strain behaviour and damage evolution of the specimens remain largely unaffected. Most damaged contacts, which mainly include aggregate\u2013mastic and mastic\u2013mastic contacts, are highly localised around the notch tips. Contacts involving capsules remained intact during early and intermediate loading stages and only fractured during the final damage stage, suggesting a delayed activation consistent with the design of healing systems. The findings suggest that capsules within the studied contents may have a moderate impact on the mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures, especially for high-volume contents. For this reason, contents higher than 0.75 wt.% should be applied with caution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su17167502","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T15:29:29Z","timestamp":1755617369000},"page":"7502","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Self-Healing Asphalt Mixtures Meso-Modelling: Impact of Capsule Content on Stiffness and Tensile Strength"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0671-6088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo","family":"C\u00e2mara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8838-3760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno Monteiro","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9910-1458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Micaelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.137","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Micromechanical Pavement Model Development for the Study of Block Cracking","volume":"206","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. 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