{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T17:19:39Z","timestamp":1771262379267,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,19]],"date-time":"2017-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1505779200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["PTDC\/AGR-PRO\/5727\/2014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/AGR-PRO\/5727\/2014"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["SFRH\/BPD\/104629\/2014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BPD\/104629\/2014"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["SFRH\/BPD\/114664\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BPD\/114664\/2016"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UID\/AGR\/04129\/2013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/AGR\/04129\/2013"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UID\/BIA\/00329\/2013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/BIA\/00329\/2013"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In Sub-Saharan Africa, the West African region has highly diverse agro-climatic conditions, which grant the potential for a remarkable agricultural production of a great diversity of crops. Since the 1980s, the production volumes of most crops have grown vigorously for both domestic and export markets. Traditional food crops\u2014such as rice, groundnuts and sorghum\u2014have been replaced by cash crops, namely cashew. Among the main cashew production areas, West Africa is the most recent and dynamic in the world, accounting for 45% of the worldwide production of cashew nuts in 2015. In consequence, cashew cultivation has acquired an important position in West African smallholder farming, providing positive economic and social effects. In this paper, we provide an overview of the cashew production system in the West African region, using Guinea-Bissau as a case study. In particular, we present some viewpoints concerning the impact of cashew production and discuss how the strong dependence on a single cash crop can compromise the local livelihoods and food security. Finally, some insights are given towards the sustainable production of cashew in the face of the recent risks affecting the agricultural sector in West Africa.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su9091666","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,19]],"date-time":"2017-09-19T11:04:35Z","timestamp":1505819075000},"page":"1666","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":78,"title":["Cashew as a High Agricultural Commodity in West Africa: Insights towards Sustainable Production in Guinea-Bissau"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1505-2140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipa","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA), Universidade de Lisboa, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1261-9076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Catarino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Dora","family":"Batista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA), Universidade de Lisboa, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o das Ferrugens do Cafeeiro (CIFC), Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA), Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-344 Oeiras, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Bucar","family":"Indjai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa, Centro de Estudos Ambientais e Tecnologia Apropriada (INEP\/CEATA), Avenida dos Combatentes da Liberdade da P\u00e1tria, Complexo Escolar 14 de Novembro, CP 112 Bissau, Guinea-Bissau"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3823-4369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Duarte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9373-6302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Romeiras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA), Universidade de Lisboa, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2015.06.015","article-title":"Potential of indigenous fruit-bearing trees to curb malnutrition, improve household food security, income and community health in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review","volume":"76","author":"Chivandi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"FAO (2017, September 14). FAO in the 21st CENTURY, Ensuring Food Security in a Changing World. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/docrep\/015\/i2307e\/i2307e.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1093\/aob\/mcu205","article-title":"Sustainable intensification in agricultural systems","volume":"114","author":"Pretty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Bot."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gfs.2014.12.001","article-title":"Food safety in developing countries: Moving beyond exports","volume":"4","author":"Unnevehr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob Food Secur."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Unnevehr, L.J., and Ronchi, L. (2014). Food Safety Standards: Economic and Market Impacts in Developing Countries, World Bank Group."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gfs.2014.04.001","article-title":"Does intensification slow crop land expansion or encourage deforestation?","volume":"3","author":"Byerlee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Food Secur."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2013.12.001","article-title":"Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature","volume":"29","author":"Laurance","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"FAO (2016, April 27). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Statistics Division. Available online: http:\/\/faostat3.fao.org\/download\/Q\/QC\/E."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hollinger, F., and Staatz, J.M. (2015). Agricultural Growth in West Africa: Market and Policy Drivers, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1007\/s13593-014-0240-7","article-title":"Cashew, from seed to market: A review","volume":"34","author":"Dendena","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agron. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2016.07.003","article-title":"Waking the Sleeping Giant: Agricultural intensification, extensification or stagnation in Mali\u2019s Guinea Savannah","volume":"148","author":"Ollenburger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2015.00482","article-title":"Tracking cashew economically important diseases in the West African region using metagenomics","volume":"6","author":"Monteiro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Salam, M.A., and Peter, K.V. (2010). Cashew-A Monograph, Studium Press (India) Pvt. Ltd."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Rabany, C., Rullier, N., and Ricau, P. (2017, September 14). The African Cashew Sector in 2015. Available online: http:\/\/www.rongead.org\/IMG\/pdf\/african_cashew_market_review_rongead_ica_2015.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Kyle, S. (2009). Cashew Production in Guinea Bissau, Cornell University."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1590\/0103-9016-2014-0369","article-title":"Cashew culture in Guinea-Bissau\u2014Risks and challenges of the success of a cash crop","volume":"72","author":"Catarino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Agric."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2016.03.077","article-title":"Ecological data in support of an analysis of Guinea-Bissau\u2019s medicinal flora","volume":"7","author":"Catarino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Data Brief"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2015.08.032","article-title":"Through the eye of a butterfly: Assessing biodiversity impacts of cashew expansion in West Africa","volume":"191","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Catarino, L., Martins, E.S.M., Pinto-Basto, M.F., and Diniz, M.A. (2006). Plantas Vasculares e Bri\u00f3fitos da Guinea-Bissau, Instituto Portugu\u00eas do Apoio ao Desenvolvimento."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2016.02.032","article-title":"Medicinal plants of Guinea-Bissau: Therapeutic applications, ethnic diversity and knowledge transfer","volume":"183","author":"Catarino","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.2163","article-title":"Agricultural sustainability: Concepts, principles and evidence","volume":"363","author":"Pretty","year":"2008","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.phyto.43.113004.133839","article-title":"Plant disease: A threat to global food security","volume":"43","author":"Strange","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Phytopathol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"54","article-title":"Cashew nuts and production development in Nigeria","volume":"3","author":"Hammed","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. Eurasian J. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/S0261-2194(01)00138-7","article-title":"Diseases of cashew nut plants in Brazil","volume":"21","author":"Freire","year":"2002","journal-title":"Crop. Prot."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.4001\/003.022.0324","article-title":"New records of insect pest species associated with cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae), in Guinea-Bissau","volume":"22","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Afr. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Topper, C.P., Caligari, P.D.S., Camara, M., Diaora, S., Djaha, A., and Coulibay, F. (2001). West African Regional Cashew Survey Report (Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Cote D'Ivore, Ghana and Nigeria), Sustainable Tree Crop Programme (STCP)."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.5897\/SRE2014.5953","article-title":"A review on cashew research and production in Nigeria in the last four decades","volume":"10","author":"Adeigbe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Res. Essays"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.5251\/abjna.2011.2.3.421.431","article-title":"Distribution and damage characteristics of Analeptes trifasciata fabricius 1775 (Coleoptera: cerambycidae) on cashew (Anacardium occidentale Linnaeus 1753) in Nigeria","volume":"2","author":"Asogwa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. Biol. J. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"201","article-title":"Xil\u00f3fagos do cajueiro (Anacardium occidentale), em especial na Guin\u00e9-Bissau","volume":"12","author":"Mendes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bol. Soc. Port. Entom."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Topper, C.P. (2017, September 14). Issues and Constraints Related to the Development of Cashew Nuts from Five Selected African Countries (Cote d\u2019Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau Nigeria). Available online: https:\/\/issuu.com\/agropec\/docs\/developmentcashewnutsafricancountries+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=sg."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Hanusch, M. (2017, September 19). Guinea-Bissau and the Cashew Economy. Available online: http:\/\/documents.worldbank.org\/curated\/en\/443831467999735473\/102933-REVISED-PUBLIC-MFM-Practice-Note-11.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"ILAP (2010). Survey Small of Poverty Assessment II, Minist\u00e9rio da Economia de Bissau."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"ACA (2017, September 14). African Cashew Alliance Annual Report 2011: Growing the African Cashew Industry. Available online: http:\/\/www.africancashewalliance.com\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/aca_annual_report_2011.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caliskan, M. (2012). Genetic Diversity of Nigerian Cashew Germplasm. Genetic Diversity in Plants, Springer.","DOI":"10.5772\/2640"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Frison, E. (2008). Biodiversity\u2014Indispensable Resources, Development and Cooperation."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.3390\/su5041632","article-title":"Challenges for crop production research in improving land use, productivity and sustainability","volume":"5","author":"Spiertz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sustainability"}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/9\/9\/1666\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:45:21Z","timestamp":1760208321000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/9\/9\/1666"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,19]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9]]}},"alternative-id":["su9091666"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su9091666","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,19]]}}}