{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T04:04:58Z","timestamp":1777089898345,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Surfaces"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antiseptics and disinfectants are extensively used for a variety of topical and hard-surface applications. A wide variety of biocides as active chemical agents is found in these products, including alcohols, phenols, iodine, and chlorine. Many of these active agents demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity; however, the mode of action of these agents is not well-documented. This review is focused on several examples of ionic systems based on ionic surfactants and ionic liquids as well as nanomaterials and nanoparticles acting as antiseptics and disinfectants for surfaces. It is important to note that many of these biocides may be used singly or in combination in a variety of products, which vary considerably in activity against microorganisms. Antimicrobial activity can be influenced by several factors such as formulation effects, presence of an organic load, synergy, temperature, dilution, and test method. The most promissory compounds based on ionic systems and nanomaterials published in mainly the last decade is chronologically reported in this review.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/surfaces4020016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T22:23:00Z","timestamp":1623104580000},"page":"169-190","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Ionic Systems and Nanomaterials as Antiseptic and Disinfectant Agents for Surface Applications: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Francisco","family":"Fa\u00edsca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Luis","family":"Filipe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8104-7008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zeljko","family":"Petrovski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8973-1595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel M.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0221-8508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Gago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Lu\u00eds C.","family":"Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Qu\u00edmica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.12.1.147","article-title":"Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance","volume":"12","author":"McDonnell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-020-01072-z","article-title":"Methods of detection of food-borne pathogens: A review","volume":"19","author":"Saravanan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosoon Choi, P.C., Lichtfouse, E., Martel, J.A., Hwang, M., Jinadatha, C., and Sharma, V.K. (2021). Classical and alternative disinfection strategies to control the COVID-19 virus in healthcare facilities: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett., in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-021-01180-4"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Schick, M.J., and Polymers, T.F. (1985). Tadros Editor, Academic."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosen, M. (2004). Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena. Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena, Wiley-VCH.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471670561"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shinoda, K. (1968). Solvent Properties of Surfactant Solutions. Soil Sci., 4.","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-196810000-00016"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.37622\/IJAC\/13.3.2017.663-672","article-title":"A Concise Review on Surfactants and Its Sigificance","volume":"3","author":"Dave","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6633","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.7b00246","article-title":"Introduction: Ionic Liquids","volume":"10","author":"Lei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2015.02.016","article-title":"The antimicrobial potential of ionic liquids: A source of chemical diversity for infection and biofilm control","volume":"46","author":"Pendleton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peter Wasserscheid, T.W. (2007). Biocatalytic Reactions in Ionic Liquids. Ionic Liquids in Synthesis, Wiley Online Library.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527621194"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1039\/b615406a","article-title":"Sef-aggregation of ionic liquids: Micelle formation in aqueous solution","volume":"5","author":"Blesic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3106","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.200601243","article-title":"Synthesis and properties of trigeminal tricationic ionic liquids","volume":"11","author":"Pernak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. A Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1039\/b921805j","article-title":"Antimicrobial and surface activity of 1-Alkyl-3-Methylimidazolium Derivatives","volume":"12","author":"Luczak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2007.09.020","article-title":"Micelle formation of imidazolium ionic liquids in aqueous solution","volume":"1","author":"Jungnickel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Colloid. Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1888","article-title":"Ionic Liquids and their Biological Effects towards Microorganisms","volume":"12","author":"Samori","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"2019","article-title":"Quantitative relation between surface active properties and antibiotic activity of 1-alkyl-3-alkylthiomethylimidazolium chlorides","volume":"11","author":"Pernak","year":"1995","journal-title":"Curr. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/S0223-5234(97)89853-4","article-title":"3-Alkylthiomethyl-1-ethylimidazolium chlorides. Correlation between critical micelle concentra-tions and minimum inhibitory concentrations","volume":"11","author":"Pernak","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2004.01.003","article-title":"Synthesis and antimicrobial proper-ties of imidazolium and pyrrolidinonium salts","volume":"5","author":"Demberelnyamba","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1039\/B616215K","article-title":"Synthesis and properties of chiral imidazolium ionic liquids with a (1R,2S,5R)-(\u2212)-menthoxymethyl substituent","volume":"31","author":"Pernak","year":"2007","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"207","article-title":"Eco-Friendly Antimicrobial Finishing of Natural Fibres","volume":"484","author":"Walentowska","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tetlet.2011.01.069","article-title":"Mandelate and prolinate ionic liquids: Synthesis, characterization, catalytic and biological activity","volume":"12","author":"Cybulski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.porgcoat.2011.05.006","article-title":"Antimicrobial polyurethane coatings based on ionic liquid quaternary ammonium compounds","volume":"72","author":"Yagci","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Org. Coat."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1080\/08927014.2012.736966","article-title":"The ionic liquid 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium demonstrates comparable anti-microbial and antibiofilm behavior to a cationic surfactant","volume":"28","author":"Lalithamanasa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biofouling"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2015.07.028","article-title":"Anti-bacterial and anti-corrosion effects of the ionic liquid 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium trifluoromethylsulfonate","volume":"211","author":"Zakaria","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Molec. Liquid."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1007\/s00396-017-4040-x","article-title":"Physicochemical properties and effect of organic and inorganic electrolytes on surface properties of C12 and C16 alcohol-based bis-sulfosuccinate anionic gemini surfactants","volume":"295","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Colloid Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.2174\/1570180814666171110142233","article-title":"Synthesis, Antimicrobial Effect and Surface Properties of Hydroxymethylsubstituted Pyridini-um Salts","volume":"15","author":"Marek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lett. Drug Design Discov."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.3139\/113.110524","article-title":"Benzalkonium salts of amino acids\u2014Physicochemical properties and anti-microbial activity","volume":"6","author":"Ossowicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tenside Surfactant. Deterg."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forero-Doria, O., Araya-Maturana, R., Barrientos-Retamal, A., Morales-Quintana, L., and Guzm\u00e1n, L. (2019). N-alkylimidazolium Salts Functionalized with p-Coumaric and Cinnamic Acid: A Study of Their Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Effects. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24193484"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15053","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.9b03690","article-title":"Synthesis, Properties, and Antimicrobial Activi-ty of 1-Alkyl-4-hydroxy-1-methylpiperidinium Ionic Liquids with Mandelate Anion","volume":"17","author":"Rzemieniecki","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2020.05.072","article-title":"Efficacy of imidazolium and piperidinium based ionic liquids on inhibiting bio-film formation on titanium and carbon steel surfaces","volume":"1126","author":"Anandkumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8419","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.0c02666","article-title":"Antibacterial and Degradable Thioimidazolium Poly(ionic liquid)","volume":"8","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-007-1549-2","article-title":"Preparation and antibacterial activity of novel fluoroalkyl end-capped oligomers\/silica nano-composites-encapsulated low molecular biocides","volume":"42","author":"Sawada","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1002\/app.31127","article-title":"A study of antimicrobial property of textile fabric treated with modified dendrimers","volume":"115","author":"Ghosh","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2010.03.002","article-title":"Period four metal nanoparticles on the inhibition of biofouling","volume":"78","author":"Chapman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1007\/s10856-012-4642-2","article-title":"Ceramic\/metal biocidal nanocomposites for bone-related applications","volume":"23","author":"Miranda","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5549","DOI":"10.1039\/c3nr00856h","article-title":"Nano-silica fabricated with silver nanoparticles: Antifouling adsorbent for efficient dye removal, effective water disinfection and biofouling control","volume":"5","author":"Das","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1177\/1528083713481833","article-title":"In situ formation of anti-bacterial silver nanoparticles on cotton textiles","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ind. Text."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3307","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201203180","article-title":"Self-Healing and Antifouling Multifunctional Coatings Based on pH and Sulfide Ion Sensitive Nanocontainers","volume":"23","author":"Zheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1","article-title":"New biocide guanidine-containing nanocomposites","volume":"16","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nanopartic. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"527","article-title":"Effect of silver nanoparticles on white-rot wood decay and some physical properties of three tropical wood species","volume":"4","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5233","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2017.13814","article-title":"Effect of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized with NPsAg-Ethylene Glycol (C2H6O2) on Brown Decay and White Decay Fungi of Nine Tropical Woods","volume":"17","author":"Moya","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palza, H., Delgado, K., and Pinochet, I. (2015). Improving the metal ion release from nanoparticles embedded in a poly-propylene matrix for antimicrobial applications. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 132.","DOI":"10.1002\/app.41232"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-014-0654-1","article-title":"Visible-light-driven enhanced antibacterial and biofilm elimination activity of graphitic carbon nitride by embedded Ag nanoparticles","volume":"8","author":"Bing","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nano Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2015.12.032","article-title":"Antibacterial performance of various amine functional polymers coated silica nanoparticles","volume":"83","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3076","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.5b12073","article-title":"Sunlight-Triggered Nanoparticle Synergy: Teamwork of Reactive Oxygen Species and Nitric Oxide Released from Mesoporous Organosilica with Advanced Antibacterial Activity","volume":"138","author":"Gehring","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.porgcoat.2016.03.012","article-title":"Silver-functionalized methyl-silica hybrid materials as antibacterial coatings on surgical-grade stainless steel","volume":"97","author":"Procaccini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Org. Coat."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.11.183","article-title":"Biogenic silica nanoparticles loaded with neem bark extract as green, slow-release biocide","volume":"142","author":"Mattos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160650","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0650","article-title":"Effective delivery of volatile biocides employing mesoporous silicates for treating biofilms","volume":"14","author":"Chan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00330","article-title":"Power and Time Dependent Microwave Assisted Fabrication of Silver Nanoparticles Decorated Cotton (SNDC) Fibers for Bacterial Decontamination","volume":"8","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51130","DOI":"10.1039\/C7RA10262C","article-title":"One pot green preparation of Seabuckthorn silver nanopar-ticles (SBT@AgNPs) featuring high stability and longevity, antibacterial, antioxidant potential: A nano disinfect-ant future perspective","volume":"7","author":"Kalaiyarasan","year":"2017","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2010.09.019","article-title":"Antioxidant, cytoprotective and antibacterial effects of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) leaves","volume":"48","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2019.02.005","article-title":"Facile, single-pot preparation of nanoporous SiO2 particles (carrier) with AgNPs at core and crust for controlled disinfectant release","volume":"23","author":"Haider","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Labena, A., Hegazy, M.A., Kamel, W.M., Elkelish, A., and Hozzein, W.N. (2020). Enhancement of A Cationic Surfactant by Capping Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization and Multiple Applications. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25092007"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.00699","article-title":"Formulation of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Controlled Release of Antimicrobials for Stone Preventive Conservation","volume":"8","author":"Presentato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"1621","article-title":"Pt(II) complex @mesoporous silica: Preparation, characterization and study of release","volume":"6","author":"Saladino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biointerf. Res. Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21183","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b20708","article-title":"Inhibition of Candida auris Biofilm For-mation on Medical and Environmental Surfaces by Silver Nanoparticles","volume":"12","author":"Humberto","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interf."}],"container-title":["Surfaces"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-9637\/4\/2\/16\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:11:51Z","timestamp":1760163111000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-9637\/4\/2\/16"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["surfaces4020016"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/surfaces4020016","relation":{},"ISSN":["2571-9637"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2571-9637","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]}}}