{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T03:02:26Z","timestamp":1778122946331,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":374,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]],"date-time":"2016-07-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1469491200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We explore the dynamics and evolution of the Universe at early and late times, focusing on both dark energy and extended gravity models and their astrophysical and cosmological consequences. Modified theories of gravity not only provide an alternative explanation for the recent expansion history of the universe, but they also offer a paradigm fundamentally distinct from the simplest dark energy models of cosmic acceleration. In this review, we perform a detailed theoretical and phenomenological analysis of different modified gravity models and investigate their consistency. We also consider the cosmological implications of well motivated physical models of the early universe with a particular emphasis on inflation and topological defects. Astrophysical and cosmological tests over a wide range of scales, from the solar system to the observable horizon, severely restrict the allowed models of the Universe. Here, we review several observational probes\u2014including gravitational lensing, galaxy clusters, cosmic microwave background temperature and polarization, supernova and baryon acoustic oscillations measurements\u2014and their relevance in constraining our cosmological description of the Universe.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym8080070","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]],"date-time":"2016-07-26T05:34:42Z","timestamp":1469511282000},"page":"70","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Unveiling the Dynamics of the Universe"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Pedro","family":"Avelino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, PT4150-762 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, PT4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Tiago","family":"Barreiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de Matem\u00e1tica, ECEO, Universidade Lus\u00f3fona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Campo Grande, 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349\u2013018 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center for Astronomy and Applied Mathematics, Academy of Athens, Soranou Efessiou 4, 11\u2013527 Athens, Greece"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Lobo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8073-4896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Prado","family":"Mart\u00edn-Moruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica Te\u00f3rica I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, E-28040 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Mimoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3837-6914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nelson","family":"Nunes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3984-9864","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Rubiera-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"S\u00e1ez-G\u00f3mez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Departamento de F\u00edsica da Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Lara","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, PT4150-762 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ismael","family":"Tereno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349\u2013018 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Edif\u00edcio C8, Campo Grande, P-1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Arlindo","family":"Trindade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Astrof\u00edsica e Ci\u00eancias do Espa\u00e7o, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, PT4150-762 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1086\/307221","article-title":"Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high redshift supernovae","volume":"517","author":"Perlmutter","year":"1999","journal-title":"Astrophys. 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