{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T12:31:45Z","timestamp":1772886705572,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC)","award":["UIDB\/00027\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00027\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC)","award":["FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)"]}]},{"name":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC)","award":["PT2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PT2020"]}]},{"name":"national funds","award":["UIDB\/00027\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00027\/2020"]}]},{"name":"national funds","award":["FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)"]}]},{"name":"national funds","award":["PT2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PT2020"]}]},{"name":"NORTE 2020","award":["UIDB\/00027\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00027\/2020"]}]},{"name":"NORTE 2020","award":["FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)"]}]},{"name":"NORTE 2020","award":["PT2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PT2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Technologies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The independence and autonomy of both elderly and disabled people have been a growing concern in today\u2019s society. Therefore, wheelchairs have proven to be fundamental for the movement of these people with physical disabilities in the lower limbs, paralysis, or other type of restrictive diseases. Various adapted sensors can be employed in order to facilitate the wheelchair\u2019s driving experience. This work develops the proof concept of a brain\u2013computer interface (BCI), whose ultimate final goal will be to control an intelligent wheelchair. An event-related (de)synchronization neuro-mechanism will be used, since it corresponds to a synchronization, or desynchronization, in the mu and beta brain rhythms, during the execution, preparation, or imagination of motor actions. Two datasets were used for algorithm development: one from the IV competition of BCIs (A), acquired through twenty-two Ag\/AgCl electrodes and encompassing motor imagery of the right and left hands, and feet; and the other (B) was obtained in the laboratory using an Emotiv EPOC headset, also with the same motor imaginary. Regarding feature extraction, several approaches were tested: namely, two versions of the signal\u2019s power spectral density, followed by a filter bank version; the use of respective frequency coefficients; and, finally, two versions of the known method filter bank common spatial pattern (FBCSP). Concerning the results from the second version of FBCSP, dataset A presented an F1-score of 0.797 and a rather low false positive rate of 0.150. Moreover, the correspondent average kappa score reached the value of 0.693, which is in the same order of magnitude as 0.57, obtained by the competition. Regarding dataset B, the average value of the F1-score was 0.651, followed by a kappa score of 0.447, and a false positive rate of 0.471. However, it should be noted that some subjects from this dataset presented F1-scores of 0.747 and 0.911, suggesting that the movement imagery (MI) aptness of different users may influence their performance. In conclusion, it is possible to obtain promising results, using an architecture for a real-time application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/technologies12060080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T10:08:38Z","timestamp":1717409318000},"page":"80","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Applications of Brain Wave Classification for Controlling an Intelligent Wheelchair"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Maria Carolina","family":"Avelar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Patricia","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2102-3407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brigida Monica","family":"Faria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESS, Polytechnic of Porto (ESS-P.PORTO), Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC\u2014Member of LASI LA), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Luis Paulo","family":"Reis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC\u2014Member of LASI LA), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1080\/0963828021000043734","article-title":"Changes in the quality of life in severely disabled people following provision of powered indoor\/outdoor chairs","volume":"25","author":"Davies","year":"2003","journal-title":"Disabil. 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