{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T13:34:54Z","timestamp":1772544894357,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]],"date-time":"2022-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Unions\u2019 Horizon 2020 research and innovation Programme","award":["733032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["733032"]}]},{"name":"European Unions\u2019 Horizon 2020 research and innovation Programme","award":["UIDP\/00009\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00009\/2020"]}]},{"name":"European Unions\u2019 Horizon 2020 research and innovation Programme","award":["UIDB\/00009\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00009\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health\u2014ToxOmics, FCT","award":["733032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["733032"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health\u2014ToxOmics, FCT","award":["UIDP\/00009\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00009\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health\u2014ToxOmics, FCT","award":["UIDB\/00009\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00009\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)), nickel (Ni) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are genotoxic co-occurring lung carcinogens whose occupational health risk is still understudied. This study, conducted within the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU), aimed at performing a mixtures risk assessment (MRA) based on published human biomonitoring (HBM) data from Cr(VI), Ni and\/or PAHs occupational co-exposure in Europe. After data extraction, Risk Quotient (RQ) and Sum of Risk Quotients (SRQ) were calculated for binary and ternary mixtures to characterise the risk. Most selected articles measured urinary levels of Cr and Ni and a SRQ &gt; 1 was obtained for co-exposure levels in welding activities, showing that there is concern regarding co-exposure to these substances. Similarly, co-exposure to mixtures of Cr(VI), Ni and PAHs in waste incineration settings resulted in SRQ &gt; 1. In some studies, a low risk was estimated based on the single substances\u2019 exposure level (RQ &lt; 1), but the mixture was considered of concern (SRQ &gt; 1), highlighting the relevance of considering exposure to the mixture rather than to its single components. Overall, this study points out the need of using a MRA based on HBM data as a more realistic approach to assess and manage the risk at the workplace, in order to protect workers\u2019 health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10080431","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T23:49:27Z","timestamp":1659397767000},"page":"431","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Occupational Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium, Nickel and PAHs: A Mixtures Risk Assessment Approach Based on Literature Exposure Data from European Countries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Ana Maria","family":"Tavares","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica Humana, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Avenida Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"ToxOmics\u2013Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health, NOVA Medical School, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo dos M\u00e1rtires da P\u00e1tria, 130, 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1015-8760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Viegas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Research Centre, NOVA National School of Public Health, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Comprehensive Health Research Center (CHRC), 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9744-7332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henriqueta","family":"Louro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica Humana, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Avenida Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"ToxOmics\u2013Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health, NOVA Medical School, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo dos M\u00e1rtires da P\u00e1tria, 130, 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8226-9227","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"G\u00f6en","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine (IPASUM), University Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg, Henkestra\u00dfe 9-11, 91054 Erlangen, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8150-4985","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiina","family":"Santonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5277-1443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirjam","family":"Luijten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Health Protection, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Kortenkamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Pollution Research and Policy, College of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, London UB8 3PH, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6060-0716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Jo\u00e3o","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica Humana, Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Avenida Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"ToxOmics\u2013Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health, NOVA Medical School, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo dos M\u00e1rtires da P\u00e1tria, 130, 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrrev.2016.03.003","article-title":"Biomonitoring of humans exposed to arsenic, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and complex mixtures of metals by using the micronucleus test in lymphocytes","volume":"770","author":"Annangi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mutat. Res.-Rev. Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"CDC\/NIOSH (2013). Criteria for a Recommended Standard. Occupational Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2013\u2013128."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"IARC (2018). Chromium (VI) Compounds, IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"IARC (2012). Arsenic, Metals, Fibres and Dusts: Nickel and Nickel Compounds, IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(03)00059-5","article-title":"Metal-induced cell signaling and gene activation in lung diseases","volume":"34","author":"Barchowsky","year":"2003","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwf165","article-title":"Exposure to different forms of nickel and risk of lung cancer","volume":"156","author":"Grimsrud","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1515\/jbcpp-2017-0171","article-title":"Primary concept of nickel toxicity\u2014An overview","volume":"30","author":"Das","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartwig, A., Arand, M., Epe, B., Guth, S., Jahnke, G., and Lampen, A. (2020). Mode of Action-Based Risk Assessment of Genotoxic Carcinogens, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-020-02733-2"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"441","article-title":"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons","volume":"3","year":"2016","journal-title":"Saf. Anal. Foods Anim. Orig."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.131768","article-title":"Cultivation of microalgae in adjusted wastewater to enhance biofuel production and reduce environmental impact: Pyrolysis performances and life cycle assessment","volume":"355","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bej.2021.108330","article-title":"Valorisation of microalgae residues after lipid extraction: Pyrolysis characteristics for biofuel production","volume":"179","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2013.07.019","article-title":"A review of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human health effects","volume":"60","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"European Commission (2016). SCOEL\/REC\/404 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Mixtures Containing Benzo[a]pyrene (PAH). Recommendation from the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Baan, R., Stewart, B., and Straif, K. (2019). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and associated occupational exposures, Tumour Site Concordance and Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis, Chapter 7."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"IARC (2014). Benzo(a)pyrene, Encyclopedia of Toxicology."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1093\/annweh\/wxy004","article-title":"Exposure to hexavalent chromium in welders: Results of the WELDOX II field study","volume":"62","author":"Pesch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Work Expo. Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2012.07.003","article-title":"Levels and predictors of airborne and internal exposure to chromium and nickel among welders-Results of the WELDOX study","volume":"216","author":"Weiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Li\u00dfner, L., Kuhl, T., Kauppinen, T., and Uuksulainen, S. (2014). Exposure to Carcinogens and Work-Related Cancer: A Review of Assessment Methods European Risk Observatory\u2014European Risk Observatory Report, European Agency for Safety and Health at Work."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"IARC (2012). Chemical agents and related occupations. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum., 100 Pt F, 9\u2013562."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2015.04.013","article-title":"The effects of heavy metals and their interactions with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the oxidative stress among coke-oven workers","volume":"140","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat9219","article-title":"Regulate to reduce chemical mixture risk","volume":"361","author":"Kortenkamp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1080\/10408444.2018.1541964","article-title":"Overview on legislation and scientific approaches for risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals: The potential EuroMix contribution","volume":"48","author":"Rotter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgg012","article-title":"Chromium(VI) exposure enhances polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA binding at the p53 gene in human lung cells","volume":"24","author":"Feng","year":"2003","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1093\/mutage\/gev021","article-title":"Micronucleus formation by single and mixed heavy metals\/loids and PAH compounds in HepG2 cells","volume":"30","author":"Peng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mutagenesis"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfv070","article-title":"Long-term coexposure to hexavalent chromium and B[a]P causes tissue-specific differential biological effects in liver and gastrointestinal tract of mice","volume":"146","author":"Fan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2017.03.012","article-title":"Human exposure to chemical mixtures: Challenges for the integration of toxicology with epidemiology data in risk assessment","volume":"103","author":"Tsatsakis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105267","article-title":"Statement on advancing the assessment of chemical mixtures and their risks for human health and the environment","volume":"134","author":"Drakvik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"EU (2013). Commission Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability Towards a Toxic-Free Environment. J. Chem. Inf. Model., 53, 1689\u20131699."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2016.05.020","article-title":"Regulatory assessment of chemical mixtures: Requirements, current approaches and future perspectives","volume":"80","author":"Kienzler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Scientific Committee, More, S.J., Bampidis, V., Benford, D., Bennekou, S.H., Bragard, C., Halldorsson, T.I., Hern\u00e1ndez-Jerez, A.F., Koutsoumanis, K., and Naegeli, H. (2019). Guidance on harmonised methodologies for human health, animal health and ecological risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals. EFSA J., 17, 77.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2019.5634"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greim, H., and Snyder, R. (2008). Toxicology and Risk Assessment, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470868959"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Lebret, E. (2021, July 14). Information Needs from Policy Makers Translated in Terms of Functionality of HBM Mixture Information Deliverable Report Deadline: November 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.hbm4eu.eu\/result\/deliverables\/."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"S18","article-title":"Considering the cumulative risk of mixtures of chemicals\u2014A challenge for policy makers","volume":"11","author":"Sarigiannis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Health A Glob. Access Sci. Source"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Kortenkamp, A., Mengelers, M., Vinggaard, A.M., Silva, M.J., Slama, R., Vermeulen, R., Vlaanderen, J., Ottenbros, I., Viegas, S., and Gomes, B. (2021, January 04). Deliverable Report AD 15.1 Plan for Development of Case Studies. Available online: https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/196530897.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2020.111520","article-title":"Methodology for health risk assessment of combined exposures to multiple chemicals","volume":"143","author":"Beronius","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"European Commission (2017). SCOEL\/REC\/386 Chromiun VI Compounds. Recommendation from the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) (2018). Committee for Risk Assessment\u2014RAC. Opinion on Scientific Evaluation of Occupational Exposure Limits for Nickel and Its Compounds."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) (2018). RAC\u2014Committee for Risk Assessment, Note on Reference Dose-Response Relationship for the Carcinogenicity of Pitch, Coal Tar, High Temperature and on PBT and vPvB Properties."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viegas, S., Jeddi, M.Z., Hopf, N.B., Bessems, J., Palmen, N., Galea, K.S., Jones, K., Kujath, P., Duca, R.C., and Verhagen, H. (2020). Biomonitoring as an underused exposure assessment tool in occupational safety and health context\u2014Challenges and way forward. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17165884"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.108583","article-title":"Setting up a collaborative European human biological monitoring study on occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium","volume":"177","author":"Santonen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viegas, S., Martins, C., Bocca, B., Bousoumah, R., Duca, R.C., Galea, K.S., Godderis, L., Iavicoli, I., Janasik, B., and Jones, K. (2022). HBM4EU Chromates Study: Determinants of Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium in Plating, Welding and Other Occupational Settings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19063683"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-483X(95)03207-V","article-title":"Current and future risk assessment guidelines, policy, and methods development for chemical mixtures","volume":"105","author":"Teuschler","year":"1995","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Ausschuss f\u00fcr Gefahrstoffe (AGS) (2021, April 07). Technische Regeln f\u00fcr Gefahrstoffe. Risikobezogenes Ma\u00dfnahmenkonzept f\u00fcr T\u00e4tigkeiten mit Krebser\u2014Zeugenden Gefahrstoffen, Available online: https:\/\/www.baua.de\/DE\/Angebote\/Rechtstexte-und-Technische-Regeln\/Regelwerk\/TRGS\/TRGS-910.html."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-004-0560-z","article-title":"Monitoring of chromium and nickel in biological fluids of stainless steel welders using the flux-cored-wire (FCW) welding method","volume":"77","author":"Stridsklev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-006-0142-3","article-title":"Monitoring of chromium and nickel in biological fluids of grinders grinding stainless steel","volume":"80","author":"Stridsklev","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.11.033","article-title":"Biomonitorization of cadmium, chromium, manganese, nickel and lead in whole blood, urine, axillary hair and saliva in an occupationally exposed population","volume":"409","author":"Gil","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-014-1319-2","article-title":"Oxidatively damaged guanosine in white blood cells and in urine of welders: Associations with exposure to welding fumes and body iron stores","volume":"89","author":"Pesch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2017.1286918","article-title":"Genotoxic and Cytotoxic Effects in Exfoliated Buccal and Nasal Cells of Chromium and Cobalt Exposed Electroplaters","volume":"80","author":"Wultsch","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health-Part A Curr. Issues"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"027105","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/6\/2\/027105","article-title":"Relation between biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate and internal exposure to metals from gas metal arc welding","volume":"6","author":"Hoffmeyer","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Breath Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-010-0516-4","article-title":"Biological effect markers in exhaled breath condensate and biomonitoring in welders: Impact of smoking and protection equipment","volume":"83","author":"Gube","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1039\/C0EM00225A","article-title":"Increased metal concentrations in exhaled breath condensate of industrial welders","volume":"13","author":"Hoffmeyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Environ. Monit."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2014.01.034","article-title":"Manganese in exhaled breath condensate: A new marker of exposure to welding fumes","volume":"226","author":"Hulo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2018.04.032","article-title":"Biomarkers of exposure to stainless steel tungsten inert gas welding fumes and the effect of exposure on exhaled breath condensate","volume":"292","author":"Riccelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2014.09.008","article-title":"Determinants of occupational exposure to metals by gas metal arc welding and risk management measures: A biomonitoring study","volume":"231","author":"Persoons","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"483","article-title":"Reduction in welding fume and metal exposure of stainless steel welders: An example from the WELDOX study","volume":"87","author":"Lehnert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2003.007146","article-title":"Biomonitoring results and cytogenetic markers among harbour workers with potential exposure to river silt aerosols","volume":"61","author":"Wegner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-002-0340-6","article-title":"Biological monitoring of metals and organic substances in hazardous-waste incineration workers","volume":"75","author":"Schuhmacher","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.57.2.133","article-title":"Lung function, biological monitoring, and biological effect monitoring of gemstone cutters exposed to beryls","volume":"57","author":"Wegner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2003.09.003","article-title":"Monitoring internal exposure to metals and organic substances in workers at a hazardous waste incinerator after 3 years of operation","volume":"15","author":"Agramunt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-008-0350-0","article-title":"Levels of metals and organic substances in workers at a hazardous waste incinerator: A follow-up study","volume":"82","author":"Mari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2010.08.002","article-title":"Genotoxic effects of occupational exposure measured in lymphocytes of waste-incinerator workers","volume":"28","author":"Wultsch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mutat. Res.-Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.12681","article-title":"Snapshot of cobalt, chromium and nickel exposure in dental technicians","volume":"75","author":"Kettelarij","year":"2016","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2015.67","article-title":"The use of bio-monitoring to assess exposure in the electroplating industry","volume":"27","author":"Beattie","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106257","article-title":"Towards a systematic use of effect biomarkers in population and occupational biomonitoring","volume":"146","author":"Hopf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1","article-title":"Managing Occupational Exposure to Welding Fume: New Evidence Suggests a More Precautionary Approach is Needed","volume":"64","author":"Cherrie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Work Expo. Health"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.60.8.563","article-title":"Municipal waste incinerators: Air and biological monitoring of workers for exposure to particles, metals, and organic compounds","volume":"60","author":"Anzivino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8487","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-1101-0","article-title":"Exposure and risk analysis to particulate matter, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon at different workplaces in Argentina","volume":"25","author":"Elordi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campo, L., Hanchi, M., Sucato, S., Consonni, D., Polledri, E., Olgiati, L., Saidane-Mosbahi, D., and Fustinoni, S. (2020). Biological Monitoring of Occupational Exposure to Metals in Electric Steel Foundry Workers and Its Contribution to 8-Oxo-7,8-Dihydro-2\u2032-Deoxyguanosine Levels. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17061811"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.113168","article-title":"Combined effects of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and metals on oxidative stress among healthy adults in Caofeidian, China","volume":"230","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Olea, N., Fern\u00e1ndez, M.F., Mustieles, V., David, A., Barouki, R., Fini, J., Demeneix, B., Lambrechts, N., Schoeters, G., and Vingaard, A.M. (2021, January 12). Criteria for Prioritization of Biomarkers of Effect Deliverable Report WP 14 Effect Biomarkers. Available online: https:\/\/www.hbm4eu.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/HBM4EU_D14.1_Criteria-Prioritization-Biomarkers-of-Effect.pdf."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"95","article-title":"Evaluation of DNA damage induction and repair inhibition in welders exposed to hexavalent chromium","volume":"11","author":"Sudha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-010-0562-y","article-title":"Evaluation of the genetic alterations in direct and indirect exposures of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] in leather tanning industry workers North Arcot District, South India","volume":"83","author":"Balachandar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1177\/1091581818764084","article-title":"Genotoxic Effects Due to Exposure to Chromium and Nickel Among Electroplating Workers","volume":"37","author":"Samir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2021.113725","article-title":"HBM4EU chromates study\u2014Reflection and lessons learnt from designing and undertaking a collaborative European biomonitoring study on occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium","volume":"234","author":"Galea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2019.05.009","article-title":"Human biomonitoring in health risk assessment in Europe: Current practices and recommendations for the future","volume":"222","author":"Louro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"799","article-title":"Genotoxic mixtures and dissimilar action: Concepts for prediction and assessment","volume":"88","author":"Ermler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/10\/8\/431\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:58:55Z","timestamp":1760140735000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/10\/8\/431"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics10080431"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics10080431","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]}}}