{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T13:57:38Z","timestamp":1774619858016,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]],"date-time":"2024-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734048000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04469\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04469\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DL 57\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DL 57\/2016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LA\/P\/0029\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0029\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory in Biotechnology, Bioengineering and Microelectrochemical Systems","award":["UIDB\/04469\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04469\/2020"]}]},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory in Biotechnology, Bioengineering and Microelectrochemical Systems","award":["DL 57\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DL 57\/2016"]}]},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory in Biotechnology, Bioengineering and Microelectrochemical Systems","award":["LA\/P\/0029\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0029\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work aimed to characterize the impact of copper (Cu), at environmentally relevant concentrations, using the freshwater microalga Raphidocelis subcapitata. Algae were incubated with 33 or 53 \u00b5g\/L Cu, in OECD medium, and toxic impacts were evaluated over 72 h, using different cellular and biochemical biomarkers. The exposure to 33 \u00b5g\/L Cu had an algistatic effect: slowing growth and reducing algal population (53%, at 72 h) without compromising the cell membrane. This Cu concentration promoted a transient reduction in chlorophyll a (chla) content and typical markers of oxidative stress: increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), augmented catalase (CAT) activity, and lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde, MDA). Algae exposed to 53 \u00b5g\/L Cu, suffered a severe effect with a 93% reduction in the number of cells, 50% decrease in chla content, and diminished (17%) maximum photochemical quantum yield of PSII (Fv\/Fm). This population also presented increased levels of ROS and MDA, 33 and 20 times higher than the control, respectively, at 72 h, augmented CAT activity, and permeabilized cell membrane (5%, at 72 h). These findings provide valuable insights into Cu toxicity in aquatic ecosystems, highlighting the biochemical and physiological impacts at environmentally relevant concentrations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics12120905","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]],"date-time":"2024-12-13T05:55:45Z","timestamp":1734069345000},"page":"905","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Integration of Copper Toxicity Mechanisms in Raphidocelis subcapitata: Advancing Insights at Environmentally Relevant Concentrations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3519-8654","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela D.","family":"Machado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Laboratory, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory, 4800-122 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2280-5291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo V.","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Laboratory, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory, 4800-122 Braga, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"ATSDR (2022). Toxicological Profile for Copper (Draft for Public Comment), Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnold, T., Bexfield, L.M., Musgrove, M., Erickson, M.L., Kingsbury, J.A., Degnan, J.R., Tesoriero, A.J., Kulongoski, J.T., and Belitz, K. (2020). Groundwater-Quality and Select Quality-Control Data from the National Water-Quality Assessment Project, January Through December 2016, and Previously Unpublished Data from 2013 to 2015, U.S. Geological Survey.","DOI":"10.3133\/ds1124"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s13530-020-00076-0","article-title":"Distributions, pollution evaluation and health risk of selected heavy metal in surface water of Taylor creek, Bayelsa State, Nigeria","volume":"13","author":"Ogamba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Environ. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.145064","article-title":"Trophic transfer of heavy metals in the marine food web based on tissue residuals","volume":"772","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-02781-4","article-title":"Biomagnification of copper along the aquatic food chain (Artemia franciscana, Danio rerio, and Astronotus ocellatus)","volume":"200","author":"VandKhanghah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2011.05.018","article-title":"Clinical parameters and biomarkers of oxidative stress in agricultural workers who applied copper-based pesticides","volume":"74","author":"Arnal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-445X(94)00071-W","article-title":"Copper toxicity on the marine microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum: Effects on photosynthesis and related parameters","volume":"31","author":"Cid","year":"1995","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1007\/s10646-016-1692-0","article-title":"Towards elucidation of the toxic mechanism of copper on the model green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii","volume":"25","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-020-02087-3","article-title":"Interactive effects of warming and copper toxicity on a tropical freshwater green microalga Chloromonas augustae (Chlorophyceae)","volume":"33","author":"Yong","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1134\/S1995425523030010","article-title":"Changes in the growth rate and fluorescent and cytometric parameters of the microalga Dunaliella salina (Teod.) at different Cu2+ concentrations in the cultivation medium","volume":"16","author":"Akimov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Contemp. Probl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00709-006-0196-9","article-title":"Physiological behavior of Scenedesmus sp. during exposure to elevated levels of Cu and Zn and after withdrawal of metal stress","volume":"229","author":"Tripathi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Protoplasma"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2013.11.017","article-title":"Modification of cell volume and proliferative capacity of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata cells exposed to metal stress","volume":"147","author":"Machado","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2015.04.022","article-title":"Responses of the alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata to long-term exposure to metal stress","volume":"296","author":"Machado","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2017.10.035","article-title":"Combined effect of copper sulfate and water temperature on key freshwater trophic levels\u2014Approaching potential climatic change scenarios","volume":"148","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2021.102223","article-title":"Effects of copper on photosynthetic and physiological parameters of a freshwater microalga (Chlorophyceae)","volume":"54","author":"Rocha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0320(19960901)25:1<32::AID-CYTO4>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"Toxic action of copper on the membrane system of a marine diatom measured by flow cytometry","volume":"25","author":"Cid","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cytometry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2017.05.048","article-title":"Sensitivity of two green microalgae to copper stress: Growth, oxidative and antioxidants analyses","volume":"144","author":"Hamed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"427","article-title":"Metal-induced reactive oxygen species production in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlorophyceae)","volume":"45","author":"Behra","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-013-9648-9","article-title":"Copper toxicity in the microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: An integrated approach","volume":"26","author":"Jamers","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMetals"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.20743","article-title":"Induction of reactive oxygen species in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in response to contrasting trace metal exposures","volume":"28","author":"Stoiber","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1080\/00318884.2021.1922819","article-title":"Oxidative stress limits growth of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales) exposed to copper ions at the early stage of culture growth","volume":"60","author":"Nowicka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2008.00471.x","article-title":"The role of reactive oxygen species in copper toxicity to two freshwater green algae","volume":"44","author":"Knauert","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1002\/clen.201600020","article-title":"Short- and long-term exposure to heavy metals induced oxidative stress response in Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata","volume":"44","author":"Machado","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clean Soil Air Water"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2005.06.031","article-title":"Oxidative stress in Scenedesmus sp. during short- and long-term exposure to Cu2+ and Zn2+","volume":"62","author":"Tripathi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s002440010199","article-title":"Development of an improved rapid enzyme inhibition bioassay with marine and freshwater microalgae using flow cytometry","volume":"40","author":"Franklin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"160","article-title":"Development of flow cytometry-based algal bioassays for assessing toxicity of copper in natural waters","volume":"20","author":"Franklin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-014-0351-1","article-title":"Use of a fluorescence-based approach to assess short-term responses of the alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata to metal stress","volume":"27","author":"Machado","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2006.09.002","article-title":"Effect of copper exposure on gene expression profiles in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii based on microarray analysis","volume":"80","author":"Jamers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.04.010","article-title":"Physiological characterization of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii acclimated to chronic stress induced by Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu and Hg ions","volume":"130","author":"Nowicka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.113336","article-title":"Changes to the amino acid profile and proteome of the tropical freshwater microalga Chlorella sp. in response to copper stress","volume":"233","author":"Shakya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado, M.D., and Soares, E.V. (2024). Features of the microalga Raphidocelis subcapitata: Physiology and applications. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 108.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-024-13038-0"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"OECD (2011). Test No. 201: Freshwater Alga and Cyanobacteria, Growth Inhibition Test, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Schecher, W.D., and McAvoy, D.C. (2003). MINEQL+: A Chemical Equilibrium Modeling System, Version 4.5 for Windows, User\u2019s Manual, Environmental Research Software."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Martell, A.E., and Smith, R.M. (2004). NIST Standard Reference Database Vol. 46, Version 8. NIST Critically Selected Stability Constants of Metal Complexes Database, US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11099-008-0019-7","article-title":"Universal chlorophyll equations for estimating chlorophylls a, b, c, and d and total chlorophylls in natural assemblages of photosynthetic organisms using acetone, methanol, or ethanol solvents","volume":"46","author":"Ritchie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Photosynthetica"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Strickland, J., and Parsons, T.R. (1972). A Practical Handbook of Seawater Analysis, Fisheries Research Board. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1093\/jexbot\/51.345.659","article-title":"Chlorophyll fluorescence\u2014A practical guide","volume":"51","author":"Maxwell","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6049","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)63504-5","article-title":"Superoxide dismutase. An. enzymatic function for erythrocuprein (hemocuprein)","volume":"244","author":"McCord","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(84)05016-3","article-title":"Catalase in vitro","volume":"105","author":"Aebi","year":"1984","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0968-0004(90)90206-Q","article-title":"The measurement and mechanism of lipid peroxidation in biological systems","volume":"15","author":"Gutteridge","year":"1990","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Fleischer, S., and Packer, L. (1978). Microsomal lipid peroxidation. Biomembranes\u2014Part C: Biological Oxidations, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-012-4185-y","article-title":"Development of a short-term assay based on the evaluation of the plasma membrane integrity of the alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata","volume":"95","author":"Machado","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2010.04.011","article-title":"Comparing the sensitivity of algal, cyanobacterial and bacterial bioassays to different groups of antibiotics","volume":"80","author":"Pikkemaat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8245","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-022-12267-5","article-title":"Life and death of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata: Physiological changes during chronological aging","volume":"106","author":"Machado","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stange, C. (2016). Carotenoids and photosynthesis. Carotenoids in Nature: Biosynthesis, Regulation and Function, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-39126-7"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5944","DOI":"10.1021\/cr200084z","article-title":"Free radical lipid peroxidation: Mechanisms and analysis","volume":"111","author":"Yin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-004-0676-y","article-title":"Oxygen free radicals and redox biology of organelles","volume":"122","author":"Moldovan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16860","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-18419-w","article-title":"Heavy metal\u2013induced stress in eukaryotic algae\u2014Mechanisms of heavy metal toxicity and tolerance with particular emphasis on oxidative stress in exposed cells and the role of antioxidant response","volume":"29","author":"Nowicka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2815","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-018-1399-0","article-title":"The \u2018stress\u2019 concept in microalgal biology\u2014Homeostasis, acclimation and adaptation","volume":"30","author":"Borowitzka","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1897\/06-534R.1","article-title":"Analysis of glutathione endpoints for measuring copper stress in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii","volume":"26","author":"Stoiber","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-014-9727-6","article-title":"Copper toxicity to Phaeodactylum tricornutum: A survey of the sensitivity of various toxicity endpoints at the physiological, biochemical, molecular and structural levels","volume":"27","author":"Wei","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMetals"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-014-2231-3","article-title":"Responses of Planktothrix agardhii and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata to copper sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O) and a chelated copper compound (Cutrine\u00ae-Ultra)","volume":"225","author":"Calomeni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-3218-9_25","article-title":"Chlorophyll a fluorescence as a probe of heavy metal ion toxicity in plants","volume":"Volume 19","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2004","journal-title":"Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"27","article-title":"Chlorophyll-xanthophyll antenna complexes: In between light harvesting and energy dissipation","volume":"Volume 45","author":"Larkum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photosynthesis in Algae: Biochemical and Physiological Mechanisms, Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00431397","article-title":"Mechanism of toxicity of ionic copper and copper complexes to algae","volume":"94","author":"Stauber","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(00)00231-6","article-title":"The Haber\u2013Weiss reaction and mechanisms of toxicity","volume":"149","author":"Kehrer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2019.10.001","article-title":"Oxidative damage and antioxidative system in algae","volume":"6","author":"Rezayian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/s11099-009-0034-3","article-title":"Modelling the dynamics of the electron transport rate measured by PAM fluorimetry during rapid light curve experiments","volume":"47","author":"Guarini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photosynthetica"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2005.03.013","article-title":"Molecular biomarkers of oxidative stress in aquatic organisms in relation to toxic environmental pollutants","volume":"64","author":"Valavanidis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2015.01.021","article-title":"Suitability of cytotoxicity endpoints and test microalgal species to disclose the toxic effect of common aquatic pollutants","volume":"114","author":"Prado","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.22837","article-title":"Molecular characterization and expression analysis of copper-zinc superoxide dismutases from the freshwater alga Closterium ehrenbergii under metal stress","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2018.12.007","article-title":"Transcriptional and physiological responses of Dunaliella salina to cadmium reveals time-dependent turnover of ribosome, photosystem, and ROS-scavenging pathways","volume":"207","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.04.018","article-title":"Revelation of microalgae\u2019s lipid production and resistance mechanism to ultra-high Cd stress by integrated transcriptome and physiochemical analyses","volume":"250","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/12\/12\/905\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:54:03Z","timestamp":1760115243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/12\/12\/905"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics12120905"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics12120905","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]]}}}