{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T03:28:13Z","timestamp":1776742093722,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]],"date-time":"2021-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT) from the Ministry of Science and Technology (MCTES), European Social Fund (FSE) of EU, through the project UIDB\/04469\/2020 (CEB strategic fund), co-funded by European Funds (PRODER\/COMPETE) and FEDER, und","award":["UIDB\/04469\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04469\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Metal nanoparticles have been extensively investigated for different types of pharmaceutical applications. However, their use has raised some concerns about their toxicity involving the increase of reactive oxygen species causing cellular apoptosis. Therefore, in this review we summarize the most relevant toxicity mechanisms of gold, silver, copper and copper oxide nanoparticles as well as production methods of metal nanoparticles. Parameters involved in their toxicity such as size, surface charge and concentration are also highlighted. Moreover, a critical revision of the literature about the strategies used to reduce the toxicity of this type of nanoparticles is carried out throughout the review. Additionally, surface modifications using different coating strategies, nanoparticles targeting and morphology modifications are deeply explained.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics9080195","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]],"date-time":"2021-08-23T00:25:21Z","timestamp":1629678321000},"page":"195","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["State of the Art on Toxicological Mechanisms of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Strategies to Reduce Toxicological Risks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0665-0840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor","family":"Garc\u00eda-Torra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9567-4283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda","family":"Cano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Neurodegenerative Disease (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1269-3847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Espina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4301-7297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miren","family":"Ettcheto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Neurodegenerative Disease (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1229-5956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antoni","family":"Camins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Neurodegenerative Disease (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4551-4825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Barroso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7138-8207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manel","family":"Vazquez-Carrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"given":"Maria Luisa","family":"Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Neurodegenerative Disease (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2571-108X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"S\u00e1nchez-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Networking Research Centre of Neurodegenerative Disease (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9737-6017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eliana B.","family":"Souto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, Campus de Gualtar, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, P\u00f3lo das Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2017.05.011","article-title":"Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities","volume":"12","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab. 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