{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T04:21:36Z","timestamp":1777868496957,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]],"date-time":"2022-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640995200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/SAU-NUT\/6061\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/SAU-NUT\/6061\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) naturally co-occur in several foods, but no studies have followed the fate of mycotoxins\u2019 interactions along the gastrointestinal tract using in vitro digestion models. This study used a novel semi-dynamic model that mimics gradual acidification and gastric emptying, coupled with a static colonic fermentation phase, in order to monitor mycotoxins\u2019 bioaccessibility by the oral route. AFB1 and OTA bioaccessibility patterns differed in single or co-exposed scenarios. When co-exposed (MIX meal), AFB1 bioaccessibility at the intestinal level increased by ~16%, while OTA bioaccessibility decreased by ~20%. Additionally, a significant increase was observed in both intestinal cell viability and NO production. With regard to mycotoxin\u2013probiotic interactions, the MIX meal showed a null effect on Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strain growth, while isolated AFB1 reduced bacterial growth parameters. These results were confirmed at phylum and family levels using a gut microbiota approach. After colonic fermentation, the fecal supernatant did not trigger the NF-kB activation pathway, indicating reduced toxicity of mycotoxins. In conclusion, if single exposed, AFB1 will have a significant impact on intestinal viability and probiotic growth, while OTA will mostly trigger NO production; in a co-exposure situation, both intestinal viability and inflammation will be affected, but the impact on probiotic growth will be neglected.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14010028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,9]],"date-time":"2022-01-09T23:35:09Z","timestamp":1641771309000},"page":"28","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Mycotoxin Interactions along the Gastrointestinal Tract: In Vitro Semi-Dynamic Digestion and Static Colonic Fermentation of a Contaminated Meal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5747-2370","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Madalena Costa","family":"Sobral","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE\u2014Laborat\u00f3rio de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Tiago","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE\u2014Laborat\u00f3rio de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1024-4792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zita E.","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE\u2014Laborat\u00f3rio de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Christine","family":"B\u00e4uerl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IATA-CSIC\u2014Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Science-National Research Council, Agust\u00edn Escardino 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"given":"Erika","family":"Cort\u00e9s-Mac\u00edas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IATA-CSIC\u2014Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Science-National Research Council, Agust\u00edn Escardino 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6204-4864","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Carmen","family":"Collado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IATA-CSIC\u2014Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Science-National Research Council, Agust\u00edn Escardino 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"given":"Isabel M. P. L. V. O.","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV\/REQUIMTE\u2014Laborat\u00f3rio de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-016-0265-7","article-title":"Mycotoxins as human carcinogens\u2014The IARC Monographs classification","volume":"33","author":"Ostry","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"R544","article-title":"Mycotoxins in Bovine Milk and Dairy Products: A Review","volume":"81","author":"Castagnaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2016.07.002","article-title":"Mycotoxins in dairy products: A review","volume":"62","author":"Benkerroum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. 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