{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T14:05:54Z","timestamp":1773842754639,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]],"date-time":"2022-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642636800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union","award":["2020-1-CZ01-KA203-078218"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-1-CZ01-KA203-078218"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDP\/04378\/2020 and UIDB\/04378\/2020 and LA\/P\/0140\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04378\/2020 and UIDB\/04378\/2020 and LA\/P\/0140\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Khat (Catha edulis) is a recreational, chewed herbal drug that has been used as a psychostimulant for centuries in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, namely in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen. However, the growing worldwide availability of khat has produced widespread concern. The plant comprises a large number of active substances, among which cathinone, cathine, and norephedrine are the main constituents, which can be included in the group of sympathomimetics of natural origin. In fact, these compounds are amphetamine analogues, and, as such, they have amphetamine-like nervous system stimulant effects. Chewing the leaves gives people a sensation of well-being and increases energy, alertness, and self-confidence. The chronic use of khat is, however, associated with severe cardiac, neurological, psychological, and gastrointestinal complications. The psychological dependence and withdrawal symptoms of khat are the reasons for its prolonged use. The aim of this paper is to review current knowledge on the khat plant with toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic perspectives. Namely, this review paper addresses in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. The models used, as well as the concentrations and doses with the respective biological effects, are discussed. Additionally, the main drug interactions involved with khat are described.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14020071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]],"date-time":"2022-01-20T22:59:57Z","timestamp":1642719597000},"page":"71","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Khat, a Cultural Chewing Drug: A Toxicokinetic and Toxicodynamic Summary"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7399-0197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B\u00e1rbara","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUINTE, Toxicology Laboratory, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jorge","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUINTE, Toxicology Laboratory, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Carolina","family":"Rocha-Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUINTE, Toxicology Laboratory, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"TOXRUN\u2014Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6076-6900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P\u0159emysl","family":"Mlad\u011bnka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, 500 05 Hradec Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9, Czech Republic"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1382-5119","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Remi\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUINTE, Toxicology Laboratory, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"name":"on behalf of The OEMONOM Researchers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"624","article-title":"Khat: A Substance of Growing Abuse with Adverse Drug Interaction Risks","volume":"110","author":"Abebe","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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