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They are essential for the spread of HIV to CD4+ T lymphocytes (TCD4+) during acute infection. In addition, they constitute a persistently infected reservoir in which viral production is maintained for long periods of time during chronic infection. Defining how HIV interacts with these cells remains a critical area of research to elucidate the pathogenic mechanisms of acute spread and sustained chronic infection and transmission. To address this issue, we analyzed a panel of phenotypically distinct HIV-1 and HIV-2 primary isolates for the efficiency with which they are transferred from infected DCs or M\u00f8 to TCD4+. Our results show that infected M\u00f8 and DCs spread the virus to TCD4+ via cell-free viral particles in addition to other alternative pathways. We demonstrate that the production of infectious viral particles is induced by the co-culture of different cell populations, indicating that the contribution of cell signaling driven by cell-to-cell contact is a trigger for viral replication. The results obtained do not correlate with the phenotypic characteristics of the HIV isolates, namely their co-receptor usage, nor do we find significant differences between HIV-1 and HIV-2 in terms of cis- or trans-infection. The data presented here may help to further elucidate the cell-to-cell spread of HIV and its importance in HIV pathogenesis. Ultimately, this knowledge is critical for new therapeutic and vaccine approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15051030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,24]],"date-time":"2023-04-24T01:35:44Z","timestamp":1682300144000},"page":"1030","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Cell-to-Cell Transmission of HIV-1 and HIV-2 from Infected Macrophages and Dendritic Cells to CD4+ T Lymphocytes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Calado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9602-1516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Pires","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health, Cat\u00f3lica Medical School, Universidade Cat\u00f3lica Portuguesa, Estrada Oct\u00e1vio Pato, 2635-631 Sintra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1139-6912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolina","family":"Concei\u00e7\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0480-5897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0222-4887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Quirina","family":"Santos-Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5934-0198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsa","family":"Anes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7434-7208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Miguel","family":"Azevedo-Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1038\/312763a0","article-title":"The CD4 (T4) antigen is an essential component of the receptor for the AIDS retrovirus","volume":"312","author":"Dalgleish","year":"1984","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6328660","article-title":"Selective Tropism of Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus (LAV) for Helper-Inducer T Lymphocytes","volume":"225","author":"Klatzmann","year":"1984","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"233","article-title":"Infection of human monocytes\/macrophages by HIV-1: Effect on secretion of IL-1 activity","volume":"64","author":"Roy","year":"1988","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1002\/jlb.59.2.158","article-title":"Dendritic cells and the replication of HIV-1","volume":"59","author":"Cameron","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. 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