{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T06:18:41Z","timestamp":1775197121401,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,18]],"date-time":"2019-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1568764800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011929","name":"Programa Operacional Tem\u00e1tico Factores de Competitividade","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006958"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011929","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/AGR\/04033\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/AGR\/04033\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/QUI\/00616\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/QUI\/00616\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Interactions between pollution sources, water contamination, and ecological integrity are complex phenomena and hard to access. To comprehend this subject of study, it is crucial to use advanced statistical tools, which can unveil cause-effect relationships between pressure from surface waters, released contaminants, and damage to the ecological status. In this study, two partial least squares-path models (PLS-PM) were created and analyzed in order to understand how the cause-effect relationships can change over two seasons (summer and winter) and how the used scale (short or long) can affect the results. During the summer of 2016 and winter of 2017 surface water parameters and the North Invertebrate Portuguese Index were measured in strategic sampling sites. For each site, it two sections were delineated: the total upstream drainage area (long scale) and 250 m (short scale). For each section, data of pressures in surface waters including point source, diffuse emissions and landscape metrics were gathered. The methodology was applied to the Sabor River Basin, located in the northeast of Portugal. In this study, it was possible to determine in which season pressures affect ecological integrity and also which scale should be addressed. The models showed the influences of manganese and of potassium concentrations in stream water on the decrease in summer water quality, while arsenic\u2019s harmful effect occurs during winter. Pastures and environmental land use conflicts were considered threats to water quality when analyzed on a long scale, whereas agricultural areas played a role when the short scale was used. The effect of landscape edge density revealed to be independent of scale or season. Effluent discharges in surface water affected the water quality during the summer season, while the effect of discharges in groundwater affected the water quality in winter. It has also been found that, to find the harmful effect of pressures, it is necessary to approach different scales and that the role of landscape metrics can also overlap contaminant sources.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w11091941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,18]],"date-time":"2019-09-18T11:01:15Z","timestamp":1568804475000},"page":"1941","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Seasonal and Scale Effects of Anthropogenic Pressures on Water Quality and Ecological Integrity: A Study in the Sabor River Basin (NE Portugal) Using Partial Least Squares-Path Modeling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6124-1578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio Carlos Pinheiro","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Tecnologias Agroambientais e Biol\u00f3gicas, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Ap 1013, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9486-7160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds Filipe","family":"Sanches Fernandes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Tecnologias Agroambientais e Biol\u00f3gicas, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Ap 1013, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4330-7569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela Patr\u00edcia Salgado","family":"Ter\u00eancio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Tecnologias Agroambientais e Biol\u00f3gicas, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Ap 1013, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8602-7663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui Manuel Vitor","family":"Cortes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Tecnologias Agroambientais e Biol\u00f3gicas, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Ap 1013, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2399-5261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando Ant\u00f3nio Leal","family":"Pacheco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Qu\u00edmica de Vila Real, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Ap 1013, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3553","DOI":"10.1029\/96WR01683","article-title":"Contributions of Water-Rock Interactions to the Composition of Groundwater in Areas with a Sizeable Anthropogenic Input: A Case Study of the Waters of the Fund\u00e3o Area, Central Portugal","volume":"32","author":"Pacheco","year":"1996","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005119121666","article-title":"Weathering, Biomass Production and Groundwater Chemistry in an Area of Dominant Anthropogenic Influence, the Chaves-Vila Pouca de Aguiar Region, North of Portugal","volume":"115","author":"Pacheco","year":"1999","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/S0883-2927(01)00121-4","article-title":"Mineral weathering rates calculated from spring water data: A case study in an area with intensive agriculture, the Morais Massif, northeast Portugal","volume":"17","author":"Pacheco","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(03)00245-2","article-title":"Hydrochemistry, weathering and weathering rates on Madeira island","volume":"283","author":"Pacheco","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2005.12.006","article-title":"Hydrogeochemistry in the Vouga River basin (central Portugal): Pollution and chemical weathering","volume":"21","author":"Pacheco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2005.12.009","article-title":"\u201cDedolomitization reactions\u201d driven by anthropogenic activity on loessy sediments, SW Hungary","volume":"21","author":"Pacheco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2013.06.012","article-title":"Anthropogenic impacts on mineral weathering: A statistical perspective","volume":"36","author":"Pacheco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.04.058","article-title":"Water resources planning for a river basin with recurrent wildfires","volume":"526","author":"Santos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.12.155","article-title":"Environmental land use conflicts in catchments: A major cause of amplified nitrate in river water","volume":"548","author":"Pacheco","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.07.127","article-title":"Controls and forecasts of nitrate yields in forested watersheds: A view over mainland Portugal","volume":"537","author":"Pacheco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.07.058","article-title":"A framework model for investigating the export of phosphorus to surface waters in forested watersheds: Implications to management","volume":"536","author":"Santos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-009-9309-5","article-title":"Contribution of Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents to Nutrient Dynamics in Aquatic Systems: A Review","volume":"44","author":"Carey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.serj.2015.11.001","article-title":"Study of biodegradability for municipal and industrial Tunisian wastewater by respirometric technique and batch reactor test","volume":"26","author":"Hayet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sustain. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2005.08.006","article-title":"Heavy metal removal mechanism of acid mine drainage in wetlands: A critical review","volume":"19","author":"Sheoran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/S0269-7491(99)00048-2","article-title":"Sediments as monitors of heavy metal contamination in the Ave river basin (Portugal): Multivariate analysis of data","volume":"105","author":"Soares","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2011.03.019","article-title":"Effects of shrimp-farm effluents on the food web structure in subtropical coastal lagoons","volume":"402","author":"Angeler","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"GB4023","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GB003085","article-title":"Assessing nitrogen pressures on European surface water","volume":"22","author":"Grizzetti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.2176","article-title":"Water pollution by agriculture","volume":"363","author":"Moss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Ayers, R.S., and Westcot, D.W. (1985). Water Quality for Agriculture, FAO United Nations."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2013.01.075","article-title":"Phytoremediation of heavy metals\u2014Concepts and applications","volume":"91","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2013.04.004","article-title":"A combined application of different engineering and biological techniques to remediate a heavily polluted river","volume":"57","author":"Sheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2005.01004.x","article-title":"Standards for ecologically successful river restoration","volume":"42","author":"Palmer","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1890\/1540-9295(2003)001[0315:DBTRUR]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Down by the riverside: Urban riparian ecology","volume":"1","author":"Groffman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-002-2735-2","article-title":"Basic Principles and Ecological Consequences of Changing Water Regimes: Riparian Plant Communities","volume":"30","author":"Nilsson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2010.11.001","article-title":"Assessing riparian vegetation structure and the influence of land use using landscape metrics and geostatistical tools","volume":"99","author":"Fernandes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGarigal, K., and Marks, B.J. (1995). FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure.","DOI":"10.2737\/PNW-GTR-351"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2016.11.005","article-title":"ZonalMetrics\u2014A Python toolbox for zonal landscape structure analysis","volume":"99","author":"Adamczyk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2427.1997.d01-539.x","article-title":"Landscape influences on water chemistry in Midwestern stream ecosystems","volume":"37","author":"Johnson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.03.004","article-title":"Prediction of flowing water pollution on the basis of landscape metrics as a tool supporting delimitation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones","volume":"23","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2005.03.009","article-title":"Scale dependence of landscape metrics and their indicatory value for nutrient and organic matter losses from catchments","volume":"5","author":"Uuemaa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2009.02.008","article-title":"Landscape ecological approach to the relationships of land use patterns in watersheds to water quality characteristics","volume":"92","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.01.162","article-title":"Influences of the land use pattern on water quality in low-order streams of the Dongjiang River basin, China: A multi-scale analysis","volume":"551","author":"Ding","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1739.2002.01067.x","article-title":"Assessing and Restoring the Health of Urban Streams in the Puget Sound Basin","volume":"16","author":"Morley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2427.1997.d01-546.x","article-title":"The influence of catchment land use on stream integrity across multiple spatial scales","volume":"37","author":"Allan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.09.179","article-title":"Influences of land use metrics at multi-spatial scales on seasonal water quality: A case study of river systems in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China","volume":"206","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-007-9033-y","article-title":"Headwater influences on downstream water quality","volume":"41","author":"Dodds","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.2007.00057.x","article-title":"Effects of Impervious Cover at Multiple Spatial Scales on Coastal Watershed Streams","volume":"43","author":"Schiff","year":"2007","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2015.06.029","article-title":"Effect of land use types on stream water quality under seasonal variation and topographic characteristics in the Wei River basin, China","volume":"60","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.14688\/1984-3801.v06n01a04","article-title":"Diagn\u00f3stico do Conflito de Uso e Ocupa\u00e7\u00e3o do Solo na Bacia do Rio Uberaba","volume":"6","author":"Junior","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.04.046","article-title":"The role of environmental land use conflicts in soil fertility: A study on the Uberaba River basin, Brazil","volume":"562","author":"Valera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2017.04.036","article-title":"A legal framework with scientific basis for applying the \u2018polluter pays principle\u2019 to soil conservation in rural watersheds in Brazil","volume":"66","author":"Valera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caldas, A., Pissarra, T., Costa, R., Neto, F., Zanata, M., Parahyba, R., Sanches Fernandes, L., Pacheco, F., Caldas, A.M., and Pissarra, T.C.T. (2018). Flood Vulnerability, Environmental Land Use Conflicts, and Conservation of Soil and Water: A Study in the Batatais SP Municipality, Brazil. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10101357"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2014.05.012","article-title":"Environmental land use conflicts: A threat to soil conservation","volume":"41","author":"Junior","year":"2014","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.03.069","article-title":"Soil losses in rural watersheds with environmental land use conflicts","volume":"485","author":"Pacheco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2015.01.010","article-title":"Multi Criteria Analysis for the monitoring of aquifer vulnerability: A scientific tool in environmental policy","volume":"48","author":"Junior","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.06.068","article-title":"Groundwater quality in rural watersheds with environmental land use conflicts","volume":"493","author":"Valle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.12.043","article-title":"A framework model for the dimensioning and allocation of a detention basin system: The case of a flood-prone mountainous watershed","volume":"533","author":"Bellu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2014.10.015","article-title":"Impacts of land use conflicts on riverine ecosystems","volume":"43","author":"Junior","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.01.199","article-title":"From catchment to fish: Impact of anthropogenic pressures on gill histopathology","volume":"550","author":"Fonseca","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.04.196","article-title":"The impact of freshwater metal concentrations on the severity of histopathological changes in fish gills: A statistical perspective","volume":"599","author":"Fonseca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.23818\/limn.25.33","article-title":"Environmental indicators of ecological integrity and their development for running waters in northern Portugal","volume":"25","author":"Oliveira","year":"2006","journal-title":"Limnetica"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016136723584","article-title":"Selecting Indicator Species to Monitor Ecological Integrity: A Review","volume":"78","author":"Carignan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.23818\/limn.21.24","article-title":"Caracterizaci\u00f3n del estado ecol\u00f3gico de r\u00edos mediterr\u00e1neos ib\u00e9ricos mediante el \u00edndice IBMWP (antes BMWP\u2019)","volume":"21","author":"Bonada","year":"2002","journal-title":"Limnetica"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"INAG (2009). Crit\u00e9rios Para a Classifica\u00e7\u00e3o do Estado das Massas de \u00c1gua Superficiais\u2013Rios e Albufeiras, Instituto da \u00c1gua I.P.. Available online: https:\/\/apambiente.pt\/dqa\/assets\/crit%C3%A9rios-classifica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-rios-e-albufeiras.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.06.001","article-title":"A multiple index integrating different levels of organization","volume":"132","author":"Cortes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021718929576","article-title":"Application of Correspondence Analysis in the Assessment of Groundwater Chemistry","volume":"30","author":"Pacheco","year":"1998","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-005-5955-1","article-title":"Two-way regionalized classification of multivariate datasets and its application to the assessment of hydrodynamic dispersion","volume":"37","author":"Pacheco","year":"2005","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfbs.2013.12.002","article-title":"A comparative study of CB-SEM and PLS-SEM for theory development in family firm research","volume":"5","author":"Astrachan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Fam. Bus. Strat."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C., and Sarstedt, M. (2014). A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling, Sage Publishing Inc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(94)90012-4","article-title":"A general structural equation model for river water quality data","volume":"162","author":"Zou","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03326090","article-title":"Evaluation of ground water quality using multiple linear regression and structural equation modeling","volume":"6","author":"Chenini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s10666-014-9407-5","article-title":"The Application of Water Quality Monitoring Data in a Reservoir Watershed Using AMOS Confirmatory Factor Analyses","volume":"19","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Assess."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.04.024","article-title":"A Structural Equation Modeling approach to water quality perceptions","volume":"197","author":"Burns","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.01.127","article-title":"A partial least squares\u2014Path modeling analysis for the understanding of biodiversity loss in rural and urban watersheds in Portugal","volume":"626","author":"Fernandes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1079","article-title":"Rainwater harvesting in catchments for agro-forestry uses: A study focused on the balance between sustainability values and storage capacity","volume":"613","author":"Fernandes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"APA (2012). ARHNorte Relat\u00f3rio de Base\u2014Parte 2 (Caracteriza\u00e7\u00e3o e Diagn\u00f3stico da Regi\u00e3o Hidrogr\u00e1fica), APA."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"DGTerrit\u00f3rio (2019, February 18). The 2015 Map of Land Uses in Portugal (Carta de Uso e Ocupa\u00e7\u00e3o do Solo in Portuguese). Available online: http:\/\/www.dgterritorio.pt\/dados_abertos\/cos\/."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"347","article-title":"Analysis of hydrology and water allocation with swat and mike hydro basin in the sabor river basin, portugal","volume":"215","author":"Santos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Impact IV"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3343","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-11-3343-2011","article-title":"The history and characteristics of the 1980\u20132005 Portuguese rural fire database","volume":"11","author":"Pereira","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves, D. (1985). Contribui\u00e7\u00e3o Para o Estudo Do Clima da Bacia Superior do Rio Sabor. Influ\u00eancia da Circula\u00e7\u00e3o Geral e Regional na Estrutura de Baixa Atmosfera, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.05.255","article-title":"Integrative assessment of river damming impacts on aquatic fauna in a Portuguese reservoir","volume":"601","author":"Santos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2016). PGRH2 - Plano de Gest\u00e3o da Regi\u00e3o Hidrogr\u00e1fica do C\u00e1vado Parte 2, Ave e Le\u00e7a (RH2), Administra\u00e7\u00e3o da Regi\u00e3o Hidrogr\u00e1fica do Norte, I.P.. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2019, July 23). Ag\u00eancia Portuguesa do Ambiente. Available online: https:\/\/www.apambiente.pt\/."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2019, December 12). EEA Data and Maps\u2014European Environment Agency. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/data-and-maps."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"ESRI (2012). ArcMap version 10.1. Environ. Syst. Resour. Inst., Available online: http:\/\/desktop.arcgis.com\/en\/arcmap\/."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2005.05.003","article-title":"Role of fractures in weathering of solid rocks: Narrowing the gap between laboratory and field weathering rates","volume":"316","author":"Pacheco","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.02.041","article-title":"Role of hydraulic diffusivity in the decrease of weathering rates over time","volume":"512","author":"Pacheco","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.11.044","article-title":"Weathering of plagioclase across variable flow and solute transport regimes","volume":"420","author":"Pacheco","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2017.05.003","article-title":"Improved framework model to allocate optimal rainwater harvesting sites in small watersheds for agro-forestry uses","volume":"550","author":"Fernandes","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1080\/19648189.2011.9693334","article-title":"Model of management and decision support systems in the distribution of water for consumption: Case study in North Portugal","volume":"15","author":"Fernandes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1111\/area.12488","article-title":"A method for selecting suitable technical solutions to support sustainable riverbank stabilisation","volume":"51","author":"Pinto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Area"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1111\/wej.12042","article-title":"Decision support systems in water resources in the demarcated region of Douro\u2014Case study in Pinh\u00e3o river basin, Portugal","volume":"28","author":"Fernandes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Environ. J."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"ESRI (2012). ArcHydro Tools for ArcGIS 10. Environ. Syst. Resour. Inst., Available online: http:\/\/downloads.esri.com\/ArcHydro\/ArcHydro\/Setup\/10.1\/."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"EC\u2014European Commission (2009). Common Implementation Strategy for the Water Framework Directive (2000\/60\/EC), Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Guidance document no. 19, guidance on surface water chemical monitoring under the water framework directive. Technical Report - 2009\u2013025."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"EC\u2014European Commission (2003). Common Implementation Strategy for the Water Framework Directive (2000\/60\/EC), Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Guidance document no. 7\u2014Monitoring under the Water Framework Directive. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v048.i03","article-title":"semPLS: Structural Equation Modeling Using Partial Least Squares","volume":"48","author":"Monecke","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Ringle, C.M., Wende, S., and Will, A. (2019, February 15). Smart PLS. Available online: https:\/\/www.smartpls.com\/."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2495\/WP180091","article-title":"Path modelling analysis of pollution sources and environmental consequences in river basins","volume":"228","author":"Fernandes","year":"2018","journal-title":"WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salgado Ter\u00eancio, D.P., Sanches Fernandes, L.F., Vitor Cortes, R.M., Moura, J.P., Leal Pacheco, F.A., Salgado Ter\u00eancio, D.P., Sanches Fernandes, L.F., Vitor Cortes, R.M., Moura, J.P., and Leal Pacheco, F.A. (2019). Can Land Cover Changes Mitigate Large Floods? A Reflection Based on Partial Least Squares-Path Modeling. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11040684"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"(2019, March 20). Decree-Law No. 236\/98. Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica No. 176\/1998. Available online: https:\/\/data.dre.pt\/eli\/dec-lei\/236\/1998\/08\/01\/p\/dre\/pt\/html."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ravenscroft, P., Brammer, H., and Richards, K. (2009). Arsenic Pollution: A Global Synthesis, Wiley-Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444308785"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-015-0868-z","article-title":"Phosphate fertilizer is a main source of arsenic in areas affected with chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka","volume":"4","author":"Jayasumana","year":"2015","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"352","article-title":"Presence of arsenic in agrochemicals and their association with the agricultural chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka","volume":"Photon 104","author":"Jayasumana","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Health"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/S1002-0160(18)60026-8","article-title":"Arsenic in Rice Soils and Potential Agronomic Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Arsenic Bioavailability: A Review","volume":"28","author":"Suriyagoda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pedosphere"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2007.02.037","article-title":"Arsenic in the environment: Biology and Chemistry","volume":"379","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s002440010182","article-title":"Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of Arsenic and Chromium in Epigean and Hypogean Freshwater Macroinvertebrates","volume":"40","author":"Canivet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-010-0520-1","article-title":"Research on potassium in agriculture: Needs and prospects","volume":"335","author":"Kirkby","year":"2010","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0238.2003.tb00265.x","article-title":"A review of potassium nutrition in grapevines with special emphasis on berry accumulation","volume":"9","author":"Mpelasoka","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. J. Grape Wine Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.3664","article-title":"Olive oil composition as a function of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium plant nutrition","volume":"89","author":"Dag","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W02407","DOI":"10.1029\/2005WR004130","article-title":"An assessment of the tracer-based approach to quantifying groundwater contributions to streamflow","volume":"42","author":"Jones","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.2166\/nh.2007.002","article-title":"Landscape metrics as indicators of river water quality at catchment scale","volume":"38","author":"Uuemaa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2427.2002.00887.x","article-title":"Riverine landscapes: Taking landscape ecology into the water","volume":"47","author":"Wiens","year":"2002","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.01.106","article-title":"Assessing anthropogenic impacts on riverine ecosystems using nested partial least squares regression","volume":"583","author":"Ferreira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"(2019, February 23). DGADR\u2014Dire\u00e7\u00e3o-Geral de Agricultura e Desenvolvimento Rural, Available online: https:\/\/www.dgadr.gov.pt\/."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1590\/0103-9016-2015-0107","article-title":"Managing agricultural phosphorus to minimize water quality impacts","volume":"73","author":"Sharpley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Agric."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(00)00373-9","article-title":"A review of water quality concerns in livestock farming areas","volume":"250","author":"Hooda","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Peden, D., Tadesse, G., Misra, A.K., Ahmed, F.A., Astatke, A., Ayalneh, W., Herrero, M., Kiwuwa, G., Kumsa, T., and Mati, B. (2013). Water and Livestock for Human development. Water for Food Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, Springer."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1007\/s40726-016-0033-5","article-title":"Managing Groundwater Nitrate Contamination from Livestock Farms: Implication for Nitrate Management Guidelines","volume":"2","author":"Sahoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pollut. Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02447513","article-title":"Landscape influences on stream biotic integrity assessed at multiple spatial scales","volume":"11","author":"Roth","year":"1996","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2009.09.003","article-title":"Land use transitions: Socio-ecological feedback versus socio-economic change","volume":"27","author":"Lambin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.09.013","article-title":"Modification to the DRASTIC framework to assess groundwater contaminant risk in rural mountainous catchments","volume":"566","author":"Pacheco","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.00108675","article-title":"Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water","volume":"108","author":"Knobeloch","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.njas.2016.03.010","article-title":"Evaluation of the Dutch implementation of the nitrates directive, the water framework directive and the national emission ceilings directive","volume":"78","author":"Tiktak","year":"2016","journal-title":"NJAS Wagening. J. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1354(96)00087-5","article-title":"Review of aquatic monitoring program design","volume":"30","author":"Dixon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Loucks, D.P., van Beek, E., Stedinger, J.R., Dijkman, J.P.M., and Villars, M.T. (2005). Water Quality Modelling and Prediction. Water Resources Systems Planning and Management: An Introduction to Methods, Models and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175335","article-title":"Assessing the impact of science funding","volume":"324","author":"Lane","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2005.09.043","article-title":"A \u201ctoolbox\u201d for biological and chemical monitoring requirements for the European Union\u2019s water framework directive","volume":"69","author":"Allan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2008.01.013","article-title":"Formative versus reflective measurement models: Two applications of formative measurement","volume":"61","author":"Coltman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"123","article-title":"Partial Least Squares (PLS) Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) for Building and Testing Behavioral Causal Theory: When to Choose It and How to Use It","volume":"57","author":"Lowry","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2009.04.011","article-title":"Optimal water quality monitoring network design for river systems","volume":"90","author":"Telci","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.06.235","article-title":"Water quality monitoring strategies\u2014A review and future perspectives","volume":"571","author":"Behmel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2013.12.010","article-title":"Evaluating the efficiency of environmental monitoring programs","volume":"39","author":"Levine","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-015-4637-9","article-title":"Comparison of sampling strategies for monitoring water quality in mesoscale Canadian Prairie watersheds","volume":"187","author":"Ross","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1139\/A07-010","article-title":"Taxonomic sufficiency: The influence of taxonomic resolution on freshwater bioassessments using benthic macroinvertebrates","volume":"16","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-005-1110-8","article-title":"Structure and Dynamics of a Benthic Invertebrate Community in an Intertidal Area of the Tagus Estuary, Western Portugal: A Six Year Data Series","volume":"555","author":"Silva","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1952)63[1117:HAAOET]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography","volume":"63","author":"Strahler","year":"1952","journal-title":"GSA Bull. Am."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(66)90013-0","article-title":"The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections","volume":"13","author":"Pielou","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.3390\/d2020207","article-title":"The Relation between Evenness and Diversity","volume":"2","author":"Jost","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diverssity"},{"key":"ref_129","first-page":"1","article-title":"Un M\u00e9todo R\u00e1pido Y Simple Para Evaluar La Calidad Biol\u00f3gica De Las Aguas Corrientes Basado En El De Hellawell (1978)","volume":"4","year":"1986","journal-title":"Limnetica"}],"container-title":["Water"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/11\/9\/1941\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:21:25Z","timestamp":1760188885000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/11\/9\/1941"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,18]]},"references-count":129,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["w11091941"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w11091941","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4441"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4441","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,18]]}}}